The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the result of comparison between the quantity (whose

magnitude is unknown) and a predefined standard.

Significance of Measurements
The advancement of Science and Technology is dependent upon a parallel progress in measurement techniques. It can
be safely said that the quickest way to assess •a nation's progress in Science and Technology is to examine the type of
measurements that are being made and the way in which the data is acquired by measurements and is processed.

There are two major functions of all branches of engineering:

(i) Design of equipment and processes, and
(ii) Proper operation and maintenance of equipment and processes

Both these functions require measurements. This is because proper and economical design, operation and
maintenance require a feedback of information. This information is supplied by making suitable measurements.
Methods of Measurement
The methods of measurement may be broadly classified into two categories.
1. Direct Methods. In these methods, the unknown quantity (also called the measurand)
is directly compared against a standard. the result is expressed as a numerical number and a unit.
Direct methods are quite common for the measurement of physical quantities like length, mass and
time.
2. Indirect Methods. Measurement by direct methods are not always possible, feasible
and practicable. These methods in most of the cases, are inaccurate because they involve human
factors. They are also less sensitive. Hence direct methods are not preferred and are rarely used.
In engineering applications Measurement Systems are used. These measurement systems use
indirect methods for measurement purposes.
A measurement system consists of a transducing element which converts the quantity to be
measured in an analogous form. The analogous signal is then processed by some intermediate
measurand is then fed to the end devices which present the results of the measurement.
Instrument :- An instrument may be defined as a device for determining the value or magnitude of a
quantity or variable.

Classification of Instruments

1. Absolute Instruments. These instruments give the magnitude of the quantity under
measurements in terms of physical constants of the instrument. The examples of this class of
instruments are Tangent Galvanometer and Rayleigh's current balance.

2. Secondary Instruments. These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being
measured can only be measured by observing the output indicated by the instrument. These
instruments are calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument or another secondary
instrument which has already been calibrated against an absolute instrument.
Working with absolute instruments for routine work is time consuming since every time a
measurement is made, it takes a lot of time to compute the magnitude of the quantity under
measurement. Therefore secondary instruments are most commonly used. Absolute instruments are
seldom used except in standards institutions while secondary instruments find usage almost in every
sphere of measurement. A voltmeter, a glass thermometer and a pressure gauge are typical examples
of secondary instruments.
Modes of Operation.
Secondary instruments work in two modes :
(i) Analog mode, and (ii) Digital mode.
Signals that vary in a continuous fashion and take on infinity of values in any given range
are called analog signals. The devices which produce these signals are called analog. In contrast, "the
signals which vary in discrete steps and thus take up only different values in a given range are called
digital signals. The devices that produce such signals are called digital devices.
Functions of the Instrument and Measurement Systems

1. Indicating Function. Instruments and systems use different kinds of methods for supplying
information concerning the variable quantity under measurement. M0st of the time this
information is obtained as a deflection of a pointer of a measuring instrument. In this way the
instrument performs a function which is commonly known as indicating function. For example,
the deflection of pointer of a speedometer indicates the speed of the automobile at that
moment.
2. Recording Function. In many cases the instrument makes a written record, usually on paper,
of the value of the quantity under measurement against time or against some other variable.
Thus the instrument performs a recording function. For example, a potentiometric type of
recorder used for monitoring temperature records the instantaneous temperatures on a strip
chart recorder.
3. Controlling Function. This is one of the most important functions especially in the field
of industrial control processes. In 1his case, the information is used by the instrument or the
system to control the original measured quantity.
Thus there are three main groups of instruments. The largest group has the indicating function.
Next in line is the group 1of instruments which have both indicating and or recording functions.
The last group falls into a special category and performs all the three functions, i.e., indicating,
recording and controlling.
Elements of a Generalized Measurement System
Most of the measurement systems contain three main functional elements. They are :
1. Primary Sensing Element 2. Variable Conversion Element, 3. Data Presentation Element.

1. Primary Sensing Element. The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with
the primary sensing element of a measurement system. This act is then immediately followed by the conversion of
measurand into an analogous electrical signal. This is done by a transducer. A transducer in general is defined as a
device which converts energy from one form to another: the first stage of a measurement system is known as a
transducer stage.
2. Variable Conversion Element. The output of the primary sensing element may be any
kind of electrical signal. It may be a voltage, a frequency or some other electrical parameter. Sometimes this output is
not suited to the system. For the instrument to perform the desired function, it may be necessary to convert this output
to some other suitable form while preserving the information content of the original signal. We may cite an example.
Suppose output is in analogue form and the next stage of the system accepts input signal only in digital form. Therefore
we will have to use an A/D converter. Many instruments do not need any variable conversion element, while others
need more than one element.
3. Variable Manipulation Element. The function of this element is to manipulate the signal presented to it
preserving the original nature of the signal. Manipulation here means a change in numerical value of the signal. For
example, an electronic amplifier accepts a small voltage signal as input and produces an output signal which is also
voltage but of greater magnitude. Thus voltage amplifier acts as a variable manipulation element. It is not necessary
that a variable manipulation element should follow the variable conversion element as shown in Fig. 1 •3. It may
precede the variable conversion element in many cases.
These processes may be linear like amplification, attenuation, integration, differentiation, addition and subtraction. Some non-
linear processes like modulation, detection, sampling, filtering, chopping and clipping etc. are performed on the signal to bring
it 'to the desired form. This is called Signal Conditioning. The term signal conditioning includes many other functions in addition
to variable conversion and variable manipulation. In fact the element that follows the primary sensing element in anv
instrument should be called Signal Conditioning Element.

4. Data Presentation Element. The information about the quantity under measurement has to be conveyed to the personnel
handling the instrument or the system for monitoring, control, or analysis purposes. The information conveyed must be in a
form intelligible to the personnel. This function is done by data presentation element. In case data is to be monitored, visual
display devices are needed. These devices may be analogue or digital indicating instruments like ammeters, voltmeters etc. ln
case the data is to be recorded, recorders like magnetic tapes, high speed camera and T.V. equipment, storage type C.R.T.,
printers, analogue and digital computers may be used. For control and analysis purpose computers may be used.
As an example of a measurement system, consider the simple bourdon tube pressure gauge as shown in Fig. 1•4. This gauge
offers a good example of a measurement system. In this case the bourdon tube acts as the primary sensing element and a
variable conversion element. It senses the input quantity (pressure in this case). On account of the pressure the closed end of
the bourdon tube is displaced. Thus the pressure is converted into a small displacement. The closed end of the bourdon tube is
connected through mechanical linkage to a gearing arrangement. The gearing arrangement amplifies the small displacement
and makes the pointer to rotate through a large angle. The mechanical linkage thus acts as a data transmission element while
the gearing arrangement acts as a data manipulation element.
The final data presentation stage consists of the pointer and dial arrangement, which when
calibrated with known pressure inputs, gives an indication of the pressure signal applied to the
bourdon tube. The schematic diagram of this measurement system is given in Fig. 1.5.
Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement systems

(i) Static characteristics, and

(ii} Dynamic characteristics

Some applications involve the measurement of quantities that are either constant or vary
very slowly with time. Under these Circumstances it is possible to define a set of criteria that gives a meaningful
description of quality of measurement without/interfering with dynamic descriptions that involve the use of differential
equations. These criteria are called Static Characteristics.

However many measurements are concerned with rapidly varying quantities and, therefore, for
such cases we must examine the dynamic relations which exist between the output and the input. This is normally done
with the help of differential equations. Performance criteria based upon dynamic relations constitute the Dynamic
Charactersitics.
The main static characteristics discussed here are : (i) Accuracy (ii) Sensitivity, (iii) Reproducibility (iv) Drift (v) Static error, and
(vi) Dead Zone. The qualities (i), (ii) and (iii) are desirable; while qualities (v), ( v) and (vi) are undesirable.

Accuracy. It is the closeness with which• an instrument reading approaches the true value. The true value is the average of an
infinite number of measured values.

Precision. It is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements, i.e. given' a fixed

value of a quantity, precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within a group of measurements.

Accurate and Precise Precise...but not Accurate

Accurate, but not Precise Neither Accurate nor Precise

Significant Figures
An indication of the precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of significant
figures in which it is expressed. Significant figures convey actual information regarding the magnitude and the
measurement precision of a quantity. The more the significant figures, the greater the precision of measurement.
Let us take an example. If a voltage is specified as 256 V its value should be taken as closer to
256 V than to either 257 or to 255 V. If the value of voltage is described as 256.0 V it means that the voltage is closer to
256.0 V than it is to 256. l V or 255.9 V. In 256 there are three significant figures when in 256.0 there are four. The latter,
with more significant figures, expresses a measurement of greater precision than the former.
Range of Doubt or Possible Errors or Doubtful Figures
The range of doubt or possible error is the largest deviation from the mean.

Static Sensitivity
The static sensitivity of an instrument is the ratio of the magnitude of the output signal to the
magnitude of input signal.
Instrument Efficiency
The efficiency of any instrument is defined as the ratio of the measured quantity at full scale
to the power taken by the instrument at full scale.

Dead Time.
Dead Time.
Dead time is defined as the time required by a measurement system to begin to respond to a change in the measurand.

Dead Zone. It is defined as the largest change of input quantity for which there is no output of the instrument.

Resolution
resolution defines the smallest measurable input change while the threshold defines the
smallest measurable input.
Static Error
The most important characteristic of an instrument and measurement system is its accuracy,
which is the agreement of the instrument reading with the true value. The accuracy of an
instrument is measured in terms of its error. Static error is defined as the difference between the
measured value and the true value of the quantity.

The absolute value of static error does not indicate precisely the . accuracy of measurements. As
an example, an error of +2 A is negligible when the current being measured is of the order of
1000 A. While the same error of ±2 A may be regarded as intolerable when the current under
measurement is 10 A or so. Thus the quality of measurement is provided by the relative static
error, i.e., the ratio of absolute static error to the true value At of the quantity under measurement.
Scale Range and Scale Span
The Scale Range of an instrument is defined as the difference between the largest and the smallest reading of the
instrument. The instrument span is given by :
Span = Maximum measuring value – minimum measuring value. (Xmax – Xmin)
For a pyrometer calibrated between 0 to I000°C, the range is lOOO"C and span is lOOO"C.
For a thermometer calibrated between 200°C to 500 C, the range is 200°C to 500°C but the span is 500-200=300°C.

Noise. Noise may be defined as any signal that does not convey any useful information. Extraneous disturbances generated in the
measuring system itself or coming from outside, frequently constitute a background against which a signal may be read. The
common sources of noise are stray electrical and magnetic fields present in the neighborhood of the instruments, Mechanical
shocks and vibrations, -Resistors generate thermal agitation noise. The noise may also originate from use of vacuum tubes. It is
desirable to keep the signal to noise ratio (SJN ratio) as high as possible to accurately measure the wanted signal.
The dynamic characteristics of any measurement system are :
(I) Speed of response (ii) Lag (iii) Fidelity (iv) Dynamic error

Speed of Response. It is the rapidity with which an instrument responds to changes in the measured quantity.

Response Time. It is the time required by instrument or system to settle to its final steady position after the application of the
input

Measuring lag. Measuring lag is the delay in the response of an instrument to a change in the measured quantity.

Fidelity. Fidelity of a system is defined as the ability of the system to reproduce the output
in the same form as the input. Supposing if a linearly varying quantity is applied to a system and if
the output is also a linearly varying quantity the system is said to have 100 percent fidelity.

Dynamic Error. It is the difference between, the true value of the quantity changing with
time and the value indicated by the instrument if no static error is assumed.
LINEAR:- An element is said to be linear if corresponding values of Input and Output lie on a straight
line. The ideal straight line connects the minimum point A (IMIN, OMIN ) to maximum
point B(IMAX, OMAX) (Figure 2.2) and therefore has the equation:

A pressure transducer may have an input range of 0 to 104 Pa and an output range of 4 to 20 mA. the
pressure transducer has an input span of 104 Pa and an output span of 16 mA
 Errors in Measurements and their Statistical Analysis

Limiting Errors (Guarantee Errors) The accuracy and precision of an instrument depends upon its
design, the material used and the workmanship that goes into making the instrument. In order to
assure the quality of the instrument, the manufacturer guarantees certain accuracy. Thus the manufacturer
has to specify the deviations from the nominal value of a particular quantity. The limits of these
deviations from the specified value are defined as Limiting Errors or Guarantee Errors. For
example, the nominal magnitude of a resistor is 100 with a limiting error of ±10%, then the magnitude
of the resistor will be between the limits

Relative (Fractional) Limiting Error

The relative (fractional) error is defined as the ratio of the error to the specified (nominal)
magnitude of a quantity. Therefore.
 Types of Errors
Errors may arise from different sources and are usually classified as under : ·
1. Gross Errors. 2. Systematic Errors. 3. Random Errors,
Gross Errors. This class of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading instruments and recording
and calculating measurement results. The experimenter, may grossly misread the scale. For example he
may, due to an oversight, read the temperature as 31'5°C while the actual reading may be 21.5 C. they
can be avoided by adopting two means.
1. Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.
2. Two, three or even more readings should be taken.

Systematic Errors
These are divided into three categories :
I. Instrumental Errors. 2. Environmental Errors. · 3. Observational Errors.
Instrumental Errors
These errors arise due to three main reasons :
(i) Due to inherent shortcomings in the instrument
(ii) Due to misuse of the instruments,
and (iii) Due to loading effects of instruments.

1. Inherent Shortcomings of Instruments. These errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical structure.
They may be due to construction, calibration or operation of style instruments. To eliminate them
(i) The procedure of measurement must be carefully planned. Substitution methods or calibration against standards may be used
for the purpose.
(ii) Correction factors should be applied after determining the instrumental errors.
(iii) The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.

2. Misuse of Instruments A good instrument used in an unintelligent way, may give erroneous
results. Examples which may be cited for this misuse of instrument may be failure to adjust the zero of instruments, poor initial
adjustments, using leads of too high a resistance and so on.
3. Loading effects. One of the most common errors committed by beginners is the improper use of an instrument. For
example, a well calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading voltage reading when connected across a high resistance circuit. The
same voltmeter when connected in a low resistance circuit, may give a more dependable reading. These examples illustrate that
the voltmeter has a loading effect on the circuit, altering the actual circuit conditions by the measurement process.
Environmental Errors
These errors are due to conditions external to the measuring device including conditions in the area
surrounding the instrument. These may be effects of temperature pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations or
of external magnetic or electrostatic fields. The corrective measures employed to eliminate or to reduce
these undesirable effects are
1. Arrangements are made to keep the conditions as nearly as constant as possible. For example,
temperature can be kept constant by keeping the equipment in a temperature controlled enclosure.
2. Using equipment which is immune to these effects. For example, variations in resistance with
temperature can be minimized by using resistance materials which have a very low resistance
temperature co-efficient.
3. Employing techniques which eliminate the effects of these disturbances. For example, the
effect of humidity dust etc. can be entirely eliminated by completely sealing the equipment.

There are two main types of environmental input.

Interfering Input: Quantities to which the Instrument is unintentionally sensitive
Modifying Input: Quantities that cause a change in the input –output relations of the instrument
Examples are: Temperature, atmospheric pressure, magnetic fields, humidity, etc.
Generalized model of a system element
If hysteresis and resolution effects are not present in an element but environmental and non-linear effects
are, then the steady-state output O of the element is in general given by eqn [2.9], i.e.:

Figure 2.11 General model of element.

Observational Errors
Observational Errors
There are many sources of observational errors. As an example, the pointer of a voltmeter
rests slightly above the surface of the scale. Thus an error on account of PARALLAX will be incurred
unless the line of vision of the observer is exactly above the pointer. To minimize parallax
errors, highly accurate meters are provided with mirrored scales, as shown in the second figure.

Modern electrical instruments have digital display which completely eliminates the errors on account of
human observational error.
Random or residual Errors
We are aware of and account for some of the factors influencing the measurement, but about the rest we
are unaware. The happenings or disturbance about which we are unaware are lumped together are called
"Random" or "Residual• Hence the errors caused by these happening are called random or Residual
Errors. Since these errors remain even after the systematic errors are eliminated of, we call these errors
as Residual (Random) errors.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS – used to determine the quality of the final test result.

1. Arithmetic Mean The most probable value of a measured variable is the arithmetic mean of the
number of readings taken.

2. Deviation from the Mean

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS – used to determine the quality of the final test result.

1. Arithmetic Mean The most probable value of a measured variable is the arithmetic mean of the
number of readings taken.

2. Deviation from the Mean

3. Average Deviations is the indication of the precision of the instrument.

Highly precise instruments yield a low average deviation between readings.

 1. Standard Deviation

Reduction in this quantity effectively means improvement in measurement. For small readings
(n < 30), the denominator is frequently expressed as (n - 1) to obtain a more accurate value for the
standard deviation.
STANDARD is a physical representation of a unit. A known accurate measure of physical quantity is
termed as a standard. These standards are used to determine the values of other physical quantities by the
comparison method. For example, the fundamental unit of length in the International system (SI) is the
metre, defined as the distance between two fine lines fixed on gold plugs near the ends of a platinum
iridium alloy at O°C and mechanically supported in a prescribed manner. Similarly, different standards
have been developed for other units and are preserved at the International Bureau of Weight and
Measures at Sevres, Paris.
Standards of measurement" are classified in categories
(i) international, (ii) primary, (iii) secondary, and (iv) working standards.

International Standards
International standards are defined by International agreement. They are periodically evaluated and
checked by absolute measurements. These International standards are not available to ordinary users.
International Ohms It is defined as the resistance offered by a column of mercury having a mass
of 14.4521 gms, uniform cross-sectional area and length of 106.300 cm, to the flow of constant
current at the melting point of ice.
International Amperes It is an unvarying current, which when passed through a solution of silver
nitrate in water (prepared in accordance with stipulated specifications) deposits silver at the rate
of 0.00 111800 gm/s.
Absolute Units International units were replaced in 1948 by absolute units. These units are more
accurate than International units, and differ slightly from them. For example,
1 International ohm = 1.00049 Absolute ohm,
1 International ampere = 0.99985 Absolute ampere
Primary Standards The principle function of primary standards is the calibration and verification of
secondary standards. Primary standards are maintained at the National Standards Laboratories in
different countries.
The primary standards are not available for use outside the National Laboratory.

Secondary Standards
Secondary standards are basic reference standards used by measurement and calibration laboratories in
industries. These secondary standards are maintained by the particular industry to which they belong.
Each industry has its own secondary standard. Each laboratory periodically sends its secondary standard
to the National standards laboratory for calibration and comparison against the primary standard. After
comparison and calibration, the National Standards Laboratory returns the Secondary standards to the
particular industrial laboratory with a certification of measuring accuracy in terms of a primary standard.

Working Standards
Working standards are the principal tools of a measurement laboratory. These standards are used to check
and calibrate laboratory instrument for accuracy and performance. For example, manufacturers of
electronic components such as capacitors, resistors, etc. use a standard called a working standard for
checking the component values being manufactured, e.g. a standard resistor for checking of resistance
value manufactured.