DECENTRALIZATION For Handbook

Overview of
Decentralization
Worldwide:
A Stepping Stone to
Improved Governance
and Human
Development
CONTENT OUTLINE:
1. Conceptual Framework linking
Development, Governance and
Decentralization
2. The relationship among FEDERAL, UNITARY
STATES and DECENTRALIZATION.
3. State of Decentralization in the world today
4. Various measures of democracy,
governance and decentralization and
current development programs
5. Recommendations
Providing Context –
Globalisation
1. Trade and Economic Policies

2. Health and Education sphere
3. Cultural Policies
4. Political Sphere
SUSTAINABLE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND GOVERNANCE
“ Good governance is perhaps the single most important factor in eradicating poverty and
promoting development.”
Kofi A. Annan, Secretary General of the United Nations
SUSTAINABLE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT GOVERNANCE
“Expanding the choices for all people in society.  As the system of values, policies and institutions by which a
-UNDP society organizes collective decision – making and action
related to political, economic and socio-cultural and
 This means that men and women particularly the poor and environmental affairs through the interaction of the state,
vulnerable are at the center of the development process. It civil society and the private sector.
also means the protection of life opportunities this makes  It comprises of the complex mechanisms, processes and
the central purpose of development process. institution through which citizens and groups articulate their
 It also means the protection of life opportunities for future interests, mediates their differences and exercise their legal
generations and the natural systems on which life depends rights and obligations.
DEMOCRATIC AND DECENTRALIZED GOVERNANCE is increasingly considered a requisite component of development initiatives
DECENTRALIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Some cases that prove the effects of decentralization on human development:
 A municipality in Brazil, Belo Horizonte, formed a municipal health council bringing together
stakeholders from the community, the local and central governments. Consequently, the council was
better able to prioritise the needs of the community, improve communication with all stakeholders
including the private sector and increase allocated resources from the Ministry of Health in exchange
for a stronger system of accountability. These achievements ultimately led to the improvement of
immunisation rates and lower infant mortality – top priorities defined by the council.
 The Local Initiative Facility for Urban Environment (LIFE) programme in Tanzania has helped strengthen
the link between civil society and local governance institutions and thereby improving local capacity to
solve key development problems.
 The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) is sponsoring a programme in Nigeria
that aims to promote more effective participation in the democratisation process. As a result of the
project, more grassroots organisations are helping women learn about their rights, identify special
concerns, and generate support for their issues. As a result women are gaining greater decision-making
abilities in the household, community and political arenas.
DECENTRALIZATION:
 “The Western world sees decentralisation as an alternative to
provide public serves in a more cost-effective way.”
 “Developing countries are pursuing decentralisation reforms to
counter economic inefficiencies, macroeconomic instability, and
ineffective governance.
 Post-communist transition countries are embracing
decentralization as a natural step in the shift to market
economies and democracy.
 Latin America is decentralizing as a result of political pressure to
democratise.
 African states view decentralizatioon as a path to national unity.
Decentralization
- As the transfer of responsibility for planning,
management and resource raising and
allocation from the central government and its
agencies to the lower levels of government.
“Decentralizing governance is the
restructuring of authority so that there is a
system of co-responsibility between
institutions of governance at the central,
regional and local levels according to the
principle of subsidiarity, thus increasing the
overall quality and effectiveness of the
system of governance, while increasing the 7
Three Broad Types of Decentralization
I. POLITICAL DECENTRALIZATION
 Refers to a situation where political power and authority has been transferred to sub-national levels
of government.
 Requires a constitutional, legal and regulatory framework to ensure accountability and transparency.
 It also necessitates the restructuring of institutions and developing linkages with civil society and the
private sector. Simultaneously, political decentralization necessitates universal participation and
new approaches to community institution and social capital.
i. Ex. DEVOLUTION
 Refers to a full transfers of responsibility, decision-making, resource and revenue
generation to a local level public authority that is autonomous and fully
independent of the devolving authority.
 Units that are devolved are usually recognized are independent legal entities and
are ideally elected (although not necessarily)
8
II. ADMINISTRATIVE DECENTRALIZATION
 aims at transferring decision-making authority, resources and responsibilities for the delivery of
select number of public services from the central government to other levels of government,
agencies, field offices of central government line agencies.
 Is often simultaneous with civil service reform.
i. Ex. DECONCENTRATION
 Refers to the transfer of authority and responsibility from one level of the central
government to another while maintaining the same hierarchical level of
accountability from the local units to the central government ministry or agency
which has been decentralized.
 It can be seen as the first step in a newly decentralizing government to improve
service delivery.
)
9
ii. Ex. DELEGATION
 Redistributes authority and responsibility to local units of
government or agencies that are not always necessarily branches or
local offices of the delegating authority.
 While some transfer of accountability to the sub-national level units
to which power is being delegated takes place, the bulk of
accountability is still vertical and to the delegating central unit.
10
III. FISCAL DECENTRALIZATION
 refers to the resource reallocation to sub-national levels of government.
Ex. DIVESTMENT
 Refers to the transfer of authority and responsibility from one level of the central
government to another while maintaining the same hierarchical level of
accountability from the local units to the central government ministry or agency
which has been decentralized.
 It can be seen as the first step in a newly decentralizing government to improve
service delivery.
)
11
Federalism, Decentralization and Unitary System
• Does a federal system facilitate decentralisation and
development better than unitary systems?
• Is the success of decentralisation and development efforts

greater in a federal rather than a unitary system or is it
independent of the government structure?
• For decentralizing unitary systems is federalism the logical

next step?
12
• Federalism is often accompanied by decentralisation, but it is not a necessary condition for
decentralisation, nor is decentralisation a sufficient condition for federalism.
• Lidija Basta points out in her overview on decentralisation: "There is no completely unitary
state. Every state is at least composed of municipalities as decentralised units. Accordingly,
the major question arises how to differentiate among a unitary state practicing
deconcentration, a decentralised state unitary state and a federal state". Ultimately she
argues that "the member states within a federal state dispose of original autonomy, which is
not the case with the autonomy of decentralised units within a unitary state; in other words,
the autonomy of member states has been established and guaranteed on a constitutional not
merely legislative (statutory level) as it is the case with decentralised units.
13
FEDERAL SYSTEM UNITARY SYSTEM
 Some consider federalism "a special case of  Under the unitary systems, the subnational units
decentralisation: a system in which public sector function largely as the administrative unit of the
decisions can be taken at various levels of government centre. One government dominates the fiscal
- a compromise between a unitary state and complete decisions, which may include granting some
decentralisation". devolution or deconcentration with authority. Thus
 In a federal system, different independent some local autonomy can emerge even in unitary
governments make public sector decisions and states.
provide greater opportunities than a unitary system
for citizen participation at subnational levels. A
federal system is expensive and institutionally
complex. It requires high levels of cooperation and
capacity at the sub-national levels to ensure the
enhancement of good governance.
14
FEDERALISM :
PROs CONs
 federal state is more apt for deconcentration since  federalism can aggravate ethnic differences and promotes
the administrative and political structures are already separatist movements, it may promote unequal
in place. Additionally, the centre does not control development of regions when universal equal
development is necessary, federalism is sometimes
member state officials in a federation, whereas sub-
ineffective and inefficient, particularly in developing
national governments in unitary states can operate
countries with a nonexistent or under-developed
only within the legislative powers that are assigned to infrastructure.
them by the centre. Therefore the workability of
decentralisation depends on the good will of the
unitary central government, instead of relying on
existing constitutional divisions of power.
15
DEMOCRACY, GOVERNANCE AND DECENTRALIZATION
 In the year 2000, 120 of the 192 countries included in a Freedom
House study were democracies.
 At the brink of the new millennium, over 58% of the Worlds
population was living in a democracy. In contrast slightly more than
33% of the population was living in an authoritarian regime (39
states), a one-party state or military dictatorship in which there are
significant humans right violations. Sixteen states or 8% of all states
had "restricted democratic practices“..
 While the number and percentage of democracies in the last 50 years

has increased dramatically from 22, so has the number of
authoritarian regimes (from 10). Given the accelerated spread of
democracy, one should remember that this shift has not always been
a peaceful one, and democracy itself has no guarantee for human
rights and freedoms.
 Additionally, the increase in the number of regimes calls for an
increased commitment to the spread and strengthening of
democratic governance. 16
State of Decentralization Worldwide,1999
Table 1
17
Sub-National Elections in Fiscally Decentralized Countries,1997
Table 2
18
Decentralization by Income Group,1999
Table 3
19
Decentralization by Region
Table 4
20
Federalism and Decentralization in Practice
There is no broad-based generalisation that can be made about the
correlation of federal/unitary states and decentralisation. Some federal
states are highly centralised - such as Malaysia, while some unitary states
have a high degree of decentralisation such as China.
 According to a study of fiscal decentralisation (based on sub-national
governments' expenditure share) of 31 decentralised countries, 18 are
unitary governments and 13 are federal. According to Robert Ebel, the
average sub-national share of expenditures is 38% for federal countries and
22% for unitary countries. While this may give a sense that federal countries
are more decentralised one should keep in mind that these measures do
not reflect sub-national government capacity, quality of service provision,
and citizen participation.
21
Country Cases – Categorizing
Decentralization in the Field
22
GERMANY
23
 Germany is a democratic, federal parliamentary republic, where
federal legislative power is vested in the Bundestag (the
parliament of Germany) and the Bundesrat (the representative
body of the Länder, Germany's regional states).
 The multi-party system has, since 1949, been dominated by the

Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and the Social Democratic Party
of Germany (SPD). The judiciary of Germany is independent of the
executive and the legislature, while it is common for leading
LOREM IPSUM
members of theDOLOR executiveSIT AMET,to be member of the legislature, as well.
CONSECTETUER ADIPISCING ELIT.
The political system is laid out in the 1949 constitution, the
Grundgesetz
Lorem (Basic
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24
The "Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany"
(Grundgesetz die die Bundesrepublik Deutschland) is the
Constitution of Germany.[11] It was formally approved on 8 May
1949, and, with the signature of the Allies of World War II on 12
May, came into effect on 23 May, as the constitution of those
states of West Germany that were initially included within the
Federal Republic. The 1949 Basic Law is a response to the
perceived flaws of the 1919 Weimar Constitution, which failed to
prevent the rise of the Nazi party in 1933. Since 1990, in the
course of the reunification process after the fall of the Berlin
Wall, the Basic Law also applies to the eastern states of the
former German Democratic Republic.
25
LOREM IPSUM DOLOR SIT AMET,
The political system of Germany

26
Executive - Head of state
The German head of state is the Federal President. As in Germany's parliamentary
system of government, the Federal Chancellor runs the government and day-to-day
politics, the role of the Federal President is mostly ceremonial. The Federal President, by
their actions and public appearances, represents the state itself, its existence, its
legitimacy, and unity. Their office involves an integrative role.[12] Nearly all actions of the
Federal President become valid only after a countersignature of a government member.
The President is not obliged by Constitution to refrain from political views. He or she is
expected to give direction to general political and societal debates, but not in a way that
links him to party politics. Most German Presidents were active politicians and party
LOREM
members IPSUM
prior DOLOR
to the office,SIT AMET,
which means that they have to change their political style
whenCONSECTETUER ADIPISCING
becoming President. ELIT. comprises the official residence of Bellevue
The function
Palace.
27
Head of government
The Bundeskanzler (federal chancellor) heads the Bundesregierung (federal government)
and thus the executive branch of the federal government. He or she is elected by and
responsible to the Bundestag, Germany's parliament. The other members of the
government are the Federal Ministers; they are chosen by the Chancellor. Germany, like
the United Kingdom, can thus be classified as a parliamentary system. The office is
currently held by Angela Merkel (since 2005).
The Chancellor cannot be removed from office during a four-year term unless
the Bundestag has agreed on a successor. This constructive vote of no confidence is
LOREM
intended to IPSUM
avoid aDOLOR
similarSIT AMET, to that of the Weimar Republic in which the
situation
CONSECTETUER
executive did not haveADIPISCING ELIT. in the legislature to govern effectively, but the
enough support
legislature was too divided to name a successor. The current system also prevents the
Chancellor from calling a snap election.
28
Legislature
Federal legislative power is divided between the Bundestag and the Bundesrat.
The Bundestag is directly elected by the German people, while the Bundesrat represents
the governments of the regional states (Länder). The federal legislature has powers
of exclusive jurisdiction and concurrent jurisdiction with the states in areas specified in
the constitution.
The Bundestag is more powerful than the Bundesrat and only needs the latter's consent
for proposed legislation related to revenue shared by the federal and state governments,
and the imposition of responsibilities on the states. In practice, however, the agreement
of theLOREM IPSUM
Bundesrat in DOLOR SIT AMET,
the legislative process is often required, since federal legislation
CONSECTETUER
frequently ADIPISCING
has to be executed ELIT. or local agencies. In the event of disagreement
by state
between the Bundestag and the Bundesrat, a conciliation committee is formed to find a
compromise.
29
Judiciary
Germany follows the civil law tradition.
The judicial system comprises three types of courts.
 Ordinary courts, dealing with criminal and most civil cases, are the most
numerous by far. The Federal Court of Justice of
Germany (Bundesgerichtshof) is the highest ordinary court and also the
highest court of appeals.
 Specialized courts hear cases related to administrative, labour, social, fiscal
and patent law.
LOREM
Constitutional courts
IPSUM DOLOR focus on judicial review and constitutional
SIT AMET,
CONSECTETUER
interpretation.ADIPISCING
The FederalELIT.
Constitutional Court (Bundesverfassungsgericht)
is the highest court dealing with constitutional matters.
30
Germany comprises sixteen states that are collectively referred
to as Länder. Due to differences in size and population,
the subdivision of these states varies especially between city-
states (Stadtstaaten) and states with larger territories
(Flächenländer). For regional administrative purposes five
states, namely Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Hesse, North
Rhine-Westphalia and Saxony, consist of a total of
22 Government Districts (Regierungsbezirke). As of 2009
Germany is divided into 403 districts (Kreise) on municipal level,
these consist of 301 rural districts and 102 urban districts
31
State Capital Area (km²) Population
Baden-Württemberg Stuttgart 35,752 10,717,000
Bavaria Munich 70,549 12,444,000
Berlin Berlin 892 3,400,000
Brandenburg Potsdam 29,477 2,568,000
Bremen Bremen 404 663,000
Hamburg Hamburg 755 1,735,000
Hessen Wiesbaden 21,115 6,098,000
Mecklenburg-
Schwerin 23,174 1,720,000
Vorpommern
Lower Saxony Hanover 47,618 8,001,000
North Rhine-Westphalia Düsseldorf 34,043 18,075,000
Rhineland-Palatinate Mainz 19,847 4,061,000
Saarland Saarbrücken 2,569 1,056,000
Saxony Dresden 18,416 4,296,000
Saxony-Anhalt Magdeburg 20,445 2,494,000
Schleswig-Holstein Kiel 15,763 2,829,000
Thuringia Erfurt 16,172 2,355,000 32
CANADA
33
 The Government of Canada (French: Gouvernement du
Canada), officially Her Majesty's Government.
(French: Gouvernement de Sa Majesté), is
the federal administration of Canada.
as a federal constitutional monarchy, wherein the Canadian
Crown acts as the core, or "the most basic building
block,"[4] of its Westminster-
style parliamentary democracy.[5] The Crown is thus the
foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches
of LOREM
the CanadianIPSUM DOLOR SIT AMET,[6][7][8] Further elements of
government.
CONSECTETUER
governance are ADIPISCING
outlined in ELIT.the rest of the Canadian
Constitution, which
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, includes
consectetuer adipiscingwritten
elit. statutes, court rulings,
and unwritten
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34
 The monarch (currently Queen Elizabeth II) is personally represented by
the Governor General of Canada (currently Julie Payette). The Queen's
Privy Council for Canada is the body that advises the sovereign or
viceroy on the exercise of executive power. However, in practice, that
task is performed only by the Cabinet, a committee within the Privy
Council composed of ministers of the Crown, who are drawn from
and responsible to the elected House of Commons in parliament. The
Cabinet is headed by the prime minister (currently Justin Trudeau), who
is appointed by the governor general after securing the confidence of
the House of Commons.

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sed pulvinar ultricies, purus lectus malesuada libero, sit
35
Executive power
The government is defined by the constitution as the Queen acting on the
advice of her privy council. However, the Privy Council—consisting mostly of
former members of parliament, chief justices of the supreme court, and
other elder statesmen—rarely meets in full. As the stipulations of responsible
government require that those who directly advise the monarch and
governor general on how to exercise the Royal Prerogative be accountable to
the elected House of Commons, the day-to-day operation of government is
guided only IPSUM
LOREM by a sub-group
DOLOR SIT of the Privy Council made up of individuals who
AMET,
holdCONSECTETUER
seats in parliament. This ELIT.
ADIPISCING body of senior ministers of the Crown is the
Cabinet.
36
Legislative power
The Parliament of Canada, the bicameral national legislature located on Parliament
Hill in the national capital of Ottawa, consists of the Queen (represented by the
governor general), the appointed Senate (upper house), and the elected House of
Commons (lower house).[33] The governor general summons and appoints each of
the 105 senators on the advice of the prime minister,[34] while the 338 members of
the House of Commons (Members of Parliament) are directly elected by eligible
voters in the Canadian populace, with each member representing a single electoral
district for a period mandated by law of not more than four years;[35] the
constitution mandates
LOREM IPSUM a maximum
DOLOR SIT AMET, of five years. Per democratic tradition, the
House CONSECTETUER
of Commons isADIPISCING ELIT.branch of parliament; the Senate and Crown
the dominant
rarely oppose its will. The Senate, thus, reviews legislation from a less partisan
standpoint.
37
Judicial power
The sovereign is responsible for rendering justice for all her subjects, and is thus
traditionally deemed the fount of justice. However, she does not personally rule in
judicial cases; instead the judicial functions of the Royal Prerogative are performed in
trust and in the Queen's name by officers of Her Majesty's courts.
The Supreme Court of Canada—the country's court of last resort—has nine justices
appointed by the governor general on recommendation by the prime minister and
led by the Chief Justice of Canada, and hears appeals from decisions rendered by the
various appellate courts from the provinces and territories. Below this is the Federal
Court,LOREM
whichIPSUM
hears DOLOR
cases arising under certain areas of federal law.[37] It works in
SIT AMET,
CONSECTETUER
conjunction with the ADIPISCING ELIT.
Federal Court of Appeal and Tax Court of Canada.
38
Canadian federalism
The powers of the parliaments in Canada are limited by the constitution,

which divides legislative abilities between the federal and provincial
governments; in general, the legislatures of the provinces may only pass
laws relating to topics explicitly reserved for them by the constitution, such
as education, provincial officers, municipal government, charitable
institutions, and "matters of a merely local or private nature,"[39] while any
matter
LOREMnotIPSUM
underDOLOR
the exclusive
SIT AMET, authority of the provincial legislatures is
within the scope ofADIPISCING
CONSECTETUER the federalELIT.
parliament's power
39
Canadian federalism
Thus, the parliament at Ottawa alone can pass laws relating to, amongst other
things, the postal service, the census, the military, criminal law, navigation and
shipping, fishing, currency, banking, weights and
measures, bankruptcy, copyrights, patents, First Nations,
and naturalization.[40] In some cases, however, the jurisdictions of the federal
and provincial parliaments may be more vague. For instance, the federal
parliament regulates marriage and divorce in general, but the solemnization of
marriage is regulated only by the provincial legislatures. Other examples include
the powers of bothADIPISCING
CONSECTETUER the federal and provincial parliaments to impose taxes,
ELIT.
borrow money, punish crimes, and regulate agriculture.
.
40
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
41
 The United States government is based on the principles
of federalism and republicanism, in which power is shared between the federal
government and state governments. The interpretation and execution of these
principles, including what powers the federal government should have and how those
powers can be exercised, have been debated ever since the adoption of the
Constitution. Some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a
more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states, or
other recognized entities.
 One of the theoretical pillars of the U.S. Constitution is the idea of "checks and
balances" among the powers and responsibilities of the three branches of American
LOREM IPSUM
government: DOLOR SIT
the executive, theAMET,
legislative, and the judiciary. For example, while the
CONSECTETUER
legislative ADIPISCING
branch (Congress) has ELIT.
the power to create law, the executive branch under
the president can veto any legislation—an act which, in turn, can be overridden by
Congress.[4] The president nominates judges to the nation's highest judiciary authority,
the Supreme Court, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme
Court, in turn, can invalidate unconstitutional laws passed by the Congress.
42
Legislative branch
House of Representatives
The 435 seats of the House grouped by state

The House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents
a congressional district. The number of representatives each state has in the House is
based on each state's population as determined in the most recent United States
Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term. Each state receives a
minimum of one representative in the House. In order to be elected as a
representative, an individual must be at least 25 years of age, must have been a U.S.
citizenLOREM
for at least
IPSUMseven
DOLORyears, and must live in the state that he or she represents.
SIT AMET,
ThereCONSECTETUER
is no limit on theADIPISCING
number of ELIT.
terms a representative may serve. In addition to the
435 voting members, there are 6 non-voting members, consisting of 5 delegates and
one resident commissioner. There is one delegate each from the District of
Columbia, Guam, the Virgin Islands, American Samoa, and the Commonwealth of the
Northern Mariana Islands, and the resident commissioner from Puerto Rico.
43
Legislative branch
Senate
In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each
state, regardless of population. There are currently 100 senators
(2 from each of the 50 states), who each serve six-year terms.
Approximately one-third of the Senate stands for election every
two years
44
Executive branch
The executive power in the federal government is vested in the President of
the United States,[7] although power is often delegated to
the Cabinet members and other officials.[8][9] The president and vice
president are elected as running mates by the Electoral College, for which
each state, as well as the District of Columbia, is allocated a number of seats
based on its representation (or ostensible representation, in the case of
D.C.) in both houses of Congress.The president is limited to a maximum of
two four-year termsDOLOR
LOREM IPSUM If the SIT
president
AMET, has already served two years or more of
a term to which some
CONSECTETUER other person
ADIPISCING ELIT. was elected, he or she may only serve
one more additional four-year term.
45
Executive branch
President
The executive branch consists of the president and those to whom the
president's powers are delegated. The president is both the head of
state and government, as well as the military commander-in-chief and
chief diplomat. The president, according to the Constitution, must "take care
that the laws be faithfully executed", and "preserve, protect and defend the
Constitution". The DOLOR
LOREM IPSUM president presides over the executive branch of the federal
SIT AMET,
government, an organization
CONSECTETUER ADIPISCINGnumbering
ELIT. about 5 million people, including 1
million active-duty military personnel and 600,000 postal service employees.
46
Executive branch
Vice - President
The vice president is the second-highest official in rank of the federal

government. The office of the vice president's duties and powers are
established in the legislative branch of the federal government under Article 1,
Section 3, Clauses 4 and 5 as the President of the Senate; this means that he or
she is the designated presiding officer of the Senate. In that capacity, the vice
president
LOREMhasIPSUM
the authority
DOLOR SIT(ex officio, for they are not an elected member of
AMET,
the Senate) to cast ADIPISCING
CONSECTETUER a tie-breaking
ELIT.vote. Pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment,
the vice president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes
to count the vote of the Electoral College.
47
Judicial branch
 Article III section I of the Constitution establishes the Supreme Court of
the United Statesand authorizes the United States Congress to establish
inferior courts as their need shall arise. Section I also establishes a
lifetime tenure for all federal judges and states that their compensation
may not be diminished during their time in office. Article II section II
establishes that all federal judges are to be appointed by the president
and confirmed by the United States Senate.
48
Judicial branch
 The district courts are the trial courts wherein cases that are considered under the Judicial
Code (Title 28, United States Code) consistent with the jurisdictional precepts of "federal
question jurisdiction" and "diversity jurisdiction" and "pendent jurisdiction" can be filed
and decided. The district courts can also hear cases under "removal jurisdiction", wherein
a case brought in State court meets the requirements for diversity jurisdiction, and one
party litigant chooses to "remove" the case from state court to federal court.
 The United States Courts of Appeals are appellate courts that hear appeals of cases
decided by the district courts, and some direct appeals from administrative agencies, and
some interlocutory appeals. The U.S. Supreme Court hears appeals from the decisions of
the courts of appeals or state supreme courts, and in addition has original jurisdiction over
a few cases.
49
50
SPAIN
51
Spain
Spain officially the Kingdom of Spain(Spanish: Reino de España), is a country
mostly located on the Iberian Peninsula in Europe. Its territory also includes
two archipelagoes: the Canary Islands off the coast of Africa, and the Balearic
Islands in the Mediterranean Sea. The
African enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla make Spain the only European country to
have a physical border with an African country (Morocco). Several small
islands in the Alboran Sea are also part of Spanish territory. The country's
mainland is IPSUM
LOREM bordered to the
DOLOR south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except
SIT AMET,
for aCONSECTETUER
small land ADIPISCING
boundary ELIT.
with Gibraltar; to the north and northeast
by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the west and northwest
by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean.
52
Spain
mainland is IPSUM
SIT AMET,
for aCONSECTETUER
boundary ELIT.
53
Spain
mainland is IPSUM
SIT AMET,
for aCONSECTETUER
boundary ELIT.
54
Spain
mainland is IPSUM
SIT AMET,
for aCONSECTETUER
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DECENTRALIZATION For Handbook

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Overview of

1. Trade and Economic Policies

• Is the success of decentralisation and development efforts

• For decentralizing unitary systems is federalism the logical

 While the number and percentage of democracies in the last 50 years

 The multi-party system has, since 1949, been dominated by the

The political system of Germany

LOREM IPSUM DOLOR SIT AMET,

The powers of the parliaments in Canada are limited by the constitution,

The 435 seats of the House grouped by state

The vice president is the second-highest official in rank of the federal

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