EMM

ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND
METALLURGY
PREPARED BY
N.MATHAN KUMAR, M.E.,(Ph.D)
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
RVS SCHOOL OF ENGG & TECH,
DINDIGUL.
METALLURGY
Application of EMAM(In Industry):

 Steel industry( e.g. steel plants, (SAIL) Essar
steels, jindal steel ltd.(JSW))
 Pipe maufacturing industry, Plastic
industry.
 Some jewelry industry(Grades of the gold)
 Manufacturing industry.
2
METALLURGY
OBJECTIVE
 Knowledge on the structure

 Properties of the materials
 Treatment
 Testing and applications of metals and non-metallic
materials
 Suitable materials for various engineering application
3
METALLURGY
Review (Not for Exam)

 Crystal structure
 BCC, (Body cubic centre) structure

 FCC, (Face cubic centre) structure and
 HCP, (Hexagonal close packing)structure
 Unit cell
 Crystallographic planes and directions
 Miller indices
 Crystal imperfections for point, line, planar and
volume defects.
METALLURGY
Review (Not for Exam)
 Grain size
 ASTM grain size number
5
METALLURGY
UNIT:I CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND
PHASE DIAGRAMS
 Constitution of alloys-Solid solution,
substitutional and interstitial-Phase
diagrams, Isomorphous, eutectic,
peritectic, and peritectroid reactions,
Iron-Iron carbon equilibrium diagram.
 Classification of steel and cast Iron,

Microstructure, Properties and
applications. 6
METALLURGY
UNIT:II HEAT TREATMENT

Definition-Full annealing, stress relief,
recrystallisation and spheroidizing-
normalising, hardening and tempering of
steel. Isothermal transformation
diagrams-cooling curves superimposed on
I.T.diagram, CCR-Hardenability, Jominy
and quench test- Austempering,
Martempering-case hardening-
carburising, nitriding, cyaniding,
carbonitriding, flame and induction
hardening . 7
METALLURGY
UNIT:III
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTING
Mechanism of plastic deformation, slip and
twinning-types of fracture-testing of materials
under tension, compression and shear loads-
Hardness tests (Brinell, Vickers and Rockwell),
Impact test-Izod and charpy, Fatigue and creep
tests, fracture toughness tests.
8
METALLURGY
UNIT:IV
FERROUS AND NON FERROUS METALS
Effect of alloying elements on steel(Mn, Si,
Cr, Mo, V, Ti & W) –Stainless and tool steels
–HSLA-maraging steels-Cast irons-Grey,
White malleable, spheroidal-Graphite, Alloy
cast irons,
Copper and copper alloys-Brass, Bronze and
Cupronickel-Aluminum and Al-Cu alloy-
Precipitation hardening-Bearing alloys.
9
METALLURGY
UNIT V
NON-METALLIC MATERIALS
Polymers-Types of polymer, commodity and
Engineering polymers-properties and
applications of PE, PP, PS, PVC, PMMA, PET,
PC, PA, ABS, PI, PAI, PPO, PPS, PEEK, PTFE
Polymer-Urea and Phenol formaldehydes-
Engineering ceramics-Introduction to fiber
reinforced plastics.
10
METALLURGY
Each category of engineering application requires material from any or all of
NMK
these three group of materials
Ceramics and Polymers
S
Metals and alloys
AB -AP/MECH SONACT
glasses
Engineering Materials
Application
Structures Machines Devices

11
METALLURGY
Metals and alloys

Steels, aluminum,
copper, silver
plastics
reinforce d
Metal-
reinforced steel
,gold, Brasses,,
bronze s, maganin
Si,Ge,GaAs,
invar, super alloys

boron rare earth
Boride-
magnetic alloys
Ceramic and Organic polymers

glasses Plastics,
Pvc,PTFE,
Mgo, cds, polyethylene
Al2O3, Fibers:Terylene,nylo
S iC, BaTio3,Silica, n,cotton,
soda-time-glass, natural, and
Concrete, cement synthetic
ferrites and garnets rubbers ,
leathers
ceramic
superconductors
Glass fiber- reinforced

12
plastics
NMK
METALLURGY
Structure:
The internal structure of a material,
simply called the structure.
13
NON-METALLIC MATERIALS:
 PE (polyethylene)
 PP (Polypropylene)
 PS(Polystyrene)
 PMMA(Polymethyl methacrylate)
 PET(Polyethylene teraphthalate)
 PC(Polycarbonates)
 PA(Polyamides)
 ABS(Acryknitrile-Butadiene-styrene)
 PI(Polyimide)
14
NON-METALLIC MATERIALS:
 PAI( Polyamideimide)
 PPO(Polyphenylene oxide)
 PPS(Polyphenylene sulphide)
 PEEK(Polyether ether ketone)
 PTFE(Polytetra fluoro ethylene)
15
METALLURGY
UNIT:I CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND

PHASE DIAGRAMS
Constitutio of alloys- solution substitution
nand interstitial-Solid diagram
, al
Isomorphou
Phase
eutectic s peritectroi
peritectic and s, reactions
, Iron-Iron, carbo equilibriu
d ,
diagram
n
Classification m and cast
stee . Iron,
of
Microstructur l
Propertie and application
e, s s.
16
UNIT:I
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS
AND PHASE DIAGRAMS
 CONSTITUTION- establishment, foundation,
creation, formation, structure, organization,
charter, bill.
17
UNIT:I
AND PHASE DIAGRAMS
SOME TECHNICAL TERMS AND
DEFINITIONS:
1.SYSTEM: It is a combination of phases of one or
more components.
2.PHASE: It is a Physically and chemically

homogenous part of a system under study, one
phase is different from the other in structure or
composition 18
UNIT:I
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND
PHASE DIAGRAMS
3.COMPONENTS:
The elements present in the
system are called component. A system may
consist of two or more components.
19
AND PHASE DIAGRAMS
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS:
4.ALLOY:
 An alloy is defined as a combination of two or
more elements, of which one of the element should be
a metal in major proportion.
 The others could be metals or non-metals, for eg:
Brass (CU-Zn), Steel (Fe-C)

20
UNIT:I
PHASE DIAGRAMS
 Alloy find very wide application in the industry than pure metals.
 Uses of pure metals
1. High electrical conductivity
2. High ductility
3. Corrosion resistance are required.
These properties are generally at a maximum value in pure metals.
21
UNIT:I
PHASE DIAGRAMS
 Mechanical properties
1. Tensile strength
2. Yield point
3. Hardness are
improved by alloying.
22
UNIT:I
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND PHASE
DIAGRAMS
CLASSIFICATION OF ALLOYS
CLASSIFICATION OF
ALLOYS
Solid Intermedia
Pure metals
Solution te phase
23
UNIT:I
PHASE DIAGRAMS
 Alloy can be either a single phase or a mixture
of phases.
 A phases is anything which is homogeneous and
physically distinct.
 In solid state alloys of three are three possible
phase. 24
UNIT:I
PHASE DIAGRAMS
 If an alloy has a single phase, it could be either

a solid solution or an intermediate phase.
 If the alloy is a mixture it could be composed of

any combination of the above three phases.
25
UNIT:I
PHASE DIAGRAMS
 Themajor element which is large in
amount is called base metal or parent
metal or solvent.
 The other element that is lesser in
amount is called the alloying element or
solute, it is the minor part (such as salt or
sugar which is less in amount, being
mixed in water- solvent).
26
UNIT:I
PHASE DIAGRAMS
5. MIXTURE:
It is a material more than one phase.
27
UNIT:I
PHASE DIAGRAMS
SOLID SOLUTION
Substitutinal Interstitial
Solid solution solid solution
Disordered Ordered
(or) Random (or) regular
28
UNIT:I
PHASE DIAGRAMS
 Solid solutions:
 A solid solution is the simplest type of alloys.
 A Solution can be defined as a homogeneous mixture
in which the atoms or molecules of one substance are
dispersed at random into another substance.
29
UNIT:I
PHASE DIAGRAMS
 A solid solution may be defined as a solid
that consist of two or more elements
atomically dispersed in a single-phase
structure.
 A solid solution is composed of two parts.
1 . Solute: A solute is the minor part of

the solution or the material which is
dissolved.
30
UNIT:I
PHASE DIAGRAMS
2. Solvent: Solvent constitutes the major portion of
the solution.
Both the solute and the solvent can be solid,
liquid or gas.
31
UNIT:I
PHASE DIAGRAMS
 Solid solution:
Simply a solution in the solid state.
Solid solution may be defined as a

solution In the solid state which consists of two
kinds of atoms combined in one type of space
lattice.
32
UNIT:I
PHASE DIAGRAMS
 space lattice:
Space lattice is defined as an array of
points in three dimensions in which every point
has surroundings identical to that every other
point in the array.
33
SOLID SOLUTION
 Case:
 In certain cases, the solidification of an
alloy results in the formation of one kind of
crystal.
 In which both metals are present, but they
cannot be detected by the microscope
 Although properties of the crystals are
profoundly( deeply,strongly) changed.
34
SOLID SOLUTION
 In such a case we have a solid metal in which the
interatomic state which existed in the liquid solution
has been persevered after solidification, and it is
known as a solid solution.
 In a solid solution the atom occur in a definite
geometrical pattern, which is usually a slightly

35
distorted form of one of the constituent metals.
SOLID SOLUTION
 Soildsolution are conductors, but not so good as
the pure metals on which they are based.
Some examples of solid solutions are:
 Cu-Zn alloys (Brasses)
 Ni-Cu alloys (Monel metal)
 Au-Ag alloys(Sterling silver)

 Fe-Cr-Ni alloys (Certain stainless steels)
 Fe-C alloys (Steels)
36
SUBSTITUTIONAL SOLID SOLUTION
Solute Atoms
1
3
SOLVENT OR S
AB
MATRIX ATOMS -
solute-Atom of Metal-B Solvent-Atoms of zinc Metal-A

37
zinc(Solute) Copper(Solvent)
Disordered substitutinal solid solution(random,)
 Ordered subsitutional solid solution
SOLVENT OR
MATRIX ATOMS
Solute
Atoms
38
 In substitutional solid solution, there is a direct
substitution of one type of atom for another.
 so that solute atoms(cu) enter the crystal to take
positions normally occupied by solvent atoms (e.g.,
Nickel atoms);
39
 The alloy is said to be in a disordered condition if
in the formation of a substitutional solid
solution, the solute atoms do not occupy any
specific position but are distributed at random in
the lattice structure of the solvent.
40
 An ordered subsititutional solid solution is shown
fig Cu-Zn, Al-Cu, α-Brass are some examples of
ordered structures.
41
INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTION
 The four elements hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen,
and boron have such small diameters that they
can occupy the empty spaces (Interstices) in the
crystal lattices of many metals.
42
Solvent or
matrix atoms Solute atoms
CARBON
(solute)
IRON
( SOLVENT)

43
 Interstitial solid solution usually have a limited
composition range and are generally considered
of secondary importance, but there are a few
instances worthy of special attention.
44
 The interstitial solution of carbon in iron
constitutes the basis of steel hardening.
 Very small amount of hydrogen introduced into
steels during acid pickling(cleaning), plating, or
welding operations causes a Sharpe decrease in
ductility, known as hydrogen embrittlement. 45

 Interstitial nitrogen is useful not only in
nirtriding process but also as an important factor
in maintaining 18Cr-8Ni
Stainless steel in the austenitic condition.
46
HUME - ROTHERY’S RULES OF SOLID
SOLUBILITY
Hume - Rothery’s Rules of solid solubility

47
HUME - ROTHERY’S RULES OF
SOLID SOLUBILITY
Hume - Rothery’s Rules of solid solubility 48

HUME –ROTHERY’S RULES OF SOLID SOLUBILITY
The solubility limit of solute in solvents depends on
various factors. These were stated by Hume-rothery
and are as follows:
1. Critical structure factor (or) Crystal structure:
Metals that have the same crystal stucture (Lattice
structure) have a greater solubility. 49

2. Relative atomic size factor(or) size factor:
 The solid solution will tend to form if the
difference in size of solute and solvent is less than
15%.
 If the difference is greater than 15% formation of
solid solution will be limited.
 For good solid solubility the difference should be less

50
than 8%
3. Chemical affinity factor (or) Electronegativity:
 Formulation of solid solution is
favoured for metals that have less chemical affinity
is more, then a compound is formed instead of a solid
solution.
 The metal which are separated in widely in the
periodic table are not suitable for making alloys
because of their high affinity. 51

4. Relative valency factor(or)valence:
A metal that has a higher valency will
disslove only a small amount of a lower valency
metal, where as the metal with low valency
will have good solubility for the higher valency
metal.
52
 In some alloys both interstitial and
substitutional solid solution are formed to an
appreciable extent.
 For Eg: A Cr-Ni steel contains interstitially
dissolved carbon and substitution ally dissolved
chromium, nickel, and minor elements. 53

POSSIBILITIES OF SOLID SOLUTIONS
• There are three possible solid solutions based on
the amount of their elements. They are:
1.Unsaturated solid solution: In the solvent is
dissolving small amount of solute as well as at a
given temperature and pressure, it is called
unsaturated solid solution. 54

2. Saturated solid solution:
If the solvent is dissolving
limiting amount of solute, it is called saturated
solid solution.
55
3. Supersaturated solid solution:
If the solvent is dissolving more of solute that it
should, under equilibrium, it is called
supersaturated solid solution.
56
PHASE DIAGRAM
Types of phase diagram
1. Isomorphous
2. Eutectoid system
3. Eutectic system
4.Peritectic system
57
5. Peritectroid reactions
PHASE DIAGRAM
 Phase Diagrams
Phase diagrams are graphical
representation of what phases are present in an
alloy system at various
Temperatures, pressures, and compositions.
58
PHASE DIAGRAM
(or)
A phase diagram is a map showing the
structure or phase present as the
temperature and overall composition of
the material are varied.
 Phase diagrams are also known as equilibrium
diagrams or constitutional diagrams.
59
WHY SHOULD PHASE DIAGRAMS BE
STUDIED?
 The phase diagrams can answer the following
important questions:
 What condition is the material in?
 Is the composition uniform throughout?
If not, how much of each component is present?
60
STUDIED?
 Is something present that may give undesired
properties?
 What will happen if temperature is increased or
decreased; pressure is changed or composition is
varied?
61
STUDIED?
 Phase diagrams are used by engineers and
scientists to understand and to predict many
aspects of the behavior of materials.
62
TERMINOLOGY USED IN PHASE DIAGRAMS
1. Components
2. System
3. Alloy
4. Solid solution
5. Solute Solution
63
6. Solvent
7. Phase
8. Equilibrium
9. Solubility limit
10.Degrees of freedom
64
 The various terms used in the study of phase
diagrams have been explained below:
1. COMPONENT: Component are pure metals
and or compounds of which an alloy is composed.
Eg: In a copper-zinc brass, the components are
CU and Zn. 65
2. SYSTEM: The system has two meanings in this
context
i. System: May refer to a specific body of
material under consideration. For Eg: A
ladle of molten steel is referred as a system.
66
 (ii)system: May also refer to the series of possible
alloys consisting of the same components. For
example, the Iron-Carbon system.
67
 A system having one components is called a
Unary system, and the system having two, three
and four components are known as Binary,
ternary and quaternary systems, respectively.
68
3. ALLOY:
An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals
or a metal (metals) and a non-metal (non-metals).
69
4.SOLID SOLUTION:
It is a solid that consist of two or
more elements atomically dispersed in a single-
phase structure.
70
5. SOLUTE SOLUTION:
It is the minor part of the
solution or the material which is dissolved.
71
6. SOLVENT:
The material which contributes the
major portion of the solution.
72
7. PHASE:
A phase may be defined as a homogenous
portion of a system that has uniform physical
and chemical characteristics.
73
8. EQUILIBRIUM:
Equilibrium is said to exit when
enough time is allowed for all possible reactions
to be completed.
74
 The equilibrium state refers to the
characteristics of the system that remain
constant indefinitely. Equilibrium occurs when
the free energy of the system is at its minimum
value.
75
 The term phase equilibrium refers to
equilibrium as it applies to systems in which
more than one phase may exist.
76
9. SOLUBILITY LIMIT:
 It is the maximum concentration of
solute that may be added without forming a new
phase.
77
NMK
 NOTE: The addition of solution in excess
RVS SOET MECH

of the solubility limit results in the formation of
another solid solution or compound.
78
NMK
10. DEGREES OF FREEDOM:
RVS SOET MECH

It is the number of
independent variables ( such as temperature,
pressure, and composition).
That can be changed independently without
changing the phase or phases of the system.
79
WHAT IS MEANT BY THE TERM PHASE?
NMK
 A phase may be a portion of matter which is
RVS SOET MECH

homogenous
 A phase may be defined as any physical distinct
homogenous and mechanically separable portion
of a substance.
80
NMK
 In Layman’s term, a phase requires a unique
RVS SOET MECH

structure, uniform composition, and well-defined
boundaries or interfaces
Examples: A pure substance such as water is a
single phase.
81
NMK
 The pure substance water can exist in solid,
RVS SOET MECH

liquid and vapour, each of these states being a
single phase, as shown in fig (a)
 Now consider the effect of adding salt(Nacl) to
water. Salt will dissolve in water to give a
homogeneous solution. 82
NMK
 Thus the salt- water solution forms a single
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phase as shown if fig(b)
 If more salt is added into water, then we have
two different phases as shown if fig(c)
83
NMK
 A Single phase system is also termed as
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“homogeneous system”
84
NMK
 System composed of two or more phases are
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termed as mixtures or heterogeneous systems’.
Fig (d)
 Most metallic alloys, ceramic, polymers, and
composite are heterogenous.
85
ILLUSTRATION OF PHASES
WATER VAPOUR(3)
NMK
RVS SOET MECH
ICE (1) W
ATER(2)
WATER
ILLUSTRATION OF PHASES:
(A) Three
forms of water: 1) Ice 2)water 3)
water vapour are each a phase. 86
NMK
salt
RVS SOET MECH

•
(b) Salt and water have unlimited solubility

(Homogeneous solution)- from a single phase
87
1
/5
Saturated brine /20
1
3
SAB-AP/MECH
S
O
Excess salt
N
A
CT
(C) Salt and water have limited solubility

(Heterogenous s olution)-from two distinct
inct phases
88
NMK
RVS SOET MECH
OIL
WATER
OIL AND WATER HAVE VIRTUALLY NO SOLUBILITY FROM TWO 89

DISTINCT PHASES
PHASE DIAGRAM OF PURE
SUBSTANCE
NMK
 One- Component Phase diagram
RVS SOET MECH

90
SUBSTANCE
NMK
RVS SOET MECH
91
SUBSTANCE
NMK
 A pure substance such as water can exist in
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solid, liquid, or vapour phases, depending on the
condition of temperature and pressure
92
SUBSTANCE
NMK
 The phase relationships may be represented on
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a pressure- temperature (PT) diagram, known as
a one-component (or unary) phase diagram, for
the H2O System.
93
SUBSTANCE
NMK
 The phase diagram is composed of regions of
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pressure and temperature where only a single
phase is stable.
 The line OA indicates the vapourisation line
and the line OB indicates the freezing line.
94
SUBSTANCE
NMK
 Liquid and vapour phase exist along the
RVS SOET MECH

vapourisation line and liquid and solid phases
along the freezing line, shows in figure. These
lines are also known as Two phase equilibrium
lines.
95
SUBSTANCE
NMK
 The point “O” is know as Triple point.
RVS SOET MECH

Triple point is the point at which three phases
(Solid, liquid, and vapour phases(gas)).
of a single material coexit. This triple point of
water exists at temperature 0.00980C
and at pressure 4.58 mm of Hg. 96

PHASE DIAGRAMS
NMK
 The properties of an alloy depend on nature,
RVS SOET MECH

amount, size, distribution and orientation of the
phases.
 A phase is the chemically and structurally
homogeneous portion of the microstructure.
97
PHASE DIAGRAMS
NMK
 It has the following characteristics
1. Same structure throughout.
RVS SOET MECH

2. Roughly the same composition and
properties throughout.
3. Definite interface between the phase
and surrounding.
98
J.W. GIBBS
( JOSIAH WILLARD GIBBS)
NMK
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99
J.W. GIBBS( JOSIAH WILLARD
GIBBS)
JOSIAH WILLARD GIBBS PROPOSAL
NMK
(OR)
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J.W. GIBBS LAW
(OR)
GIBB’S PHASE RULE
(or)
PHASE RULE
100
GIBBS PHASE RULE
NMK
 J.W. Gibbs, American physicist derived an
RVS SOET MECH

equation which established relationship in a
system between the number of phases,
 The number of degree of freedom and the
number of components.
101
GIBB’S PHASE RULE
NMK
 The phase rule indicates the phases that exists
RVS SOET MECH

at equilibrium.
 The Gibb’s phase rule satisfies the following
relation:
P+F=C+n
102
GIBB’S PHASE RULE
NMK
 P- Number of phases that exist in a
RVS SOET MECH

system under certain conditions.
C-Number of components in the system.
n- It represents the number of variables,
examples: Temperature, pressure and
concentration. 103
GIBB’S PHASE RULE
NMK
F- Degree of freedom. It is the number of
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variables such as temperature or
pressure or concentration which can
be change independently without
changing the number of phases that
are present in the system.

104
GIBB’S PHASE RULE
NMK
 In most studies the pressure is constant
RVS SOET MECH

 i.e., 1 atmospheric pressure and hence pressure
is not considered a variable.
 Usually the only variable under consideration is

temperature and hence the Gibb’s phase rule
becomes;
P+F=C+1
105
USES OF PHASE RULE
NMK
 The phase rule predicts maximum number of
phases present in the alloy under equilibrium
RVS SOET MECH

conditions at any point of diagram.
 If the number of phases are known, one can

determine the degree of freedom using phase
rule.
106
USES OF PHASE RULE
NMK
 Thus the phase rule is useful to know whether
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the temperature or pressure or both variables
can be changed without changing the structure of
the alloy.
107
ILLUSTRATION OF THE USE OF THE
PHASE RULE
NMK
 Let us consider the application of gibbs phase rule
to the phase diagram of water system
RVS SOET MECH

 Case 1 : Consider a triple point in the diagram.
At the triple point, three phases coexist in
equilibrium .
 P=3. Since there is one component (water) in the

system C= 1
108
THE USE OF THE PHASE RULE
NMK
 The number of degree of freedom can be
calculated using the Gibbs phase rule as,
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 F=1- 3+2
F=0 (Zero degree of freedom)
 This means that one of the variables

(Temperature or pressure) can be changed
at the triple point. 109
NMK
 Note: Since the variables temperature or
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pressure cannot be changed and still keep the
three phases of coexistence.
 The triple point is called an invariant point.
110
NMK
 Case 2: Next consider a point along liquid-
solid freezing curve
RVS SOET MECH

P=2
Then for water system
C=1
Applying the phase rule, we get:
F=1- 2+ 2
F=1 (one degree of freedom)
111
NMK
 This means that one variable
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 ( Temperature or pressure) can be changed
independently and still maintain a system
with two coexisting phases.
112
NMK
 Case:3
Now consider a point on the phase
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diagram of water inside a single phase in this
case there will be only one phase present.
P=1 ,
Then for water system, C=1
Now the phase rule gives
113
NMK
 F=1-1+2
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F=2 ( two degree of freedom)
This means that two variables ( Temperature
and pressure) can be varied independently and
the system will still remain in a single phase.
114
NMK
 Note: In many application (especially for most
RVS SOET MECH

binary alloy) the pressure is kept constant at 1
atmosphere.
 In this case Gibbs phase rule is modified as
F=C-P+1
115
NMK
 The above equation is known as condensed phase
RVS SOET MECH

rule.
 This equation can be applied to most of
the binary phase diagram.
116
OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
NMK
1. -----------May be visualized as forming from a
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centre of freezing, or nucleus, which is composed
of a small group of atoms oriented into one of the
common crystal patterns.
Crystal
117
OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
NMK
2.Perfect crystal of proper external shape can be
RVS SOET MECH

obtained only if crystallisation develops under
conditions
when degree of ----------------is very slight and the
metal has a very high purity.
118
MICRO-CONSTITUENTS OF IRON-CARBON
ALLOYS
NMK
 There are different micorscope constituents of
RVS SOET MECH

Iron-Carbon alloys exit.
 The study of these micro-constituents is
essential in order to understand iron-iron
carbide (Fe-Fe3C) equilibrium phase diagram.
119
VARIOUS MICRO-CONSTITUENTS OF IRON-
CARBON ALLOYS ARE:
NMK
1.Ferrite
RVS SOET MECH

2.Austenite
3.Cementite
4.Pearlite
5.Ledeburite
120
6.Martensite
CARBON ALLOYS ARE:
NMK
7. Troosite
RVS SOET MECH

8. Sorbite, and
9.Bainite
121
CARBON ALLOYS ARE:
NMK
1. Ferrite (or α-Iron)
RVS SOET MECH

 Ferrite is a primary solid solution based on α iron
having BCC structure.
 It is Nothing but the interstitial solid solution of
carbon in iron.
122
NMK RVS SOET MECH
123
FERRITE
CARBON ALLOYS ARE:
NMK
 Maximum solubility of carbon in iron is 0.025% carbon
RVS SOET MECH

at 723°C, While its solubility at room temperature is
only 0.008%.
 Ferrite is soft, ductile, and highly
Magnetic.
 It can undergo extensive cold working 124

CARBON ALLOYS ARE:
NMK
2. Austenite(or γ-Iron)
RVS SOET MECH

 Austenite is a primary solid solution based on γ
iron having FCC structure.
 This is also an interstitial solid solution of
carbon in iron
125
NMK RVS SOET MECH
126
AUSTENITE
AUSTENITE
NMK
 It is also a non-magnetic (paramagnetic)
RVS SOET MECH

 Austentite has a greater electrical resistance
and coefficient of expansion than ferrite.
127
CEMENTITE
NMK
 Cementite is the name given to the carbide of
RVS SOET MECH

iron(Fe3c).
 It is the hard, brittle, intermetallic compound of
iron with 6.69% of carbon.
128
CEMENTITE
NMK
 The hardness and brittleness of cast iron is
RVS SOET MECH

believed to be due to the presence of the
cementite.
 It is Magnetic below 250°c
129
NMK RVS SOET MECH
130
CEMENTITE
PEARLITE
NMK
 Pearlite is the eutectoid mixture of ferrite
RVS SOET MECH

(87.5%) and cementite (12.5%).
 It is formed when austenite decomposes
during cooling. It contains 0.8% of carbon
131
NMK RVS SOET MECH
132
PEARLITE
PEARLITE
LAMELLAR-PEARLITE BEADED BAG
NMK
RVS SOET MECH
133
PEARLITE
NMK
 It consist of alternate thin layers (or lamellae) of
RVS SOET MECH

ferrite and cementite shown in fig.
 The name derives from its lustrous apperance
(similar to mother of pearl) when viewed in
white light under a microscope.
134
PEARLITE
NMK
 The properties of pearlite is midway between
RVS SOET MECH

ferrite and cementite. It is relatively strong, hard
and ductile.
135
LEDEBURITE
NMK
 Ledeburite is the eutectic mixture of austenite(γ-Iron) and
RVS SOET MECH

cementite (Fe3C) Containing 4.3% carbon.
 In pure iron-carbon alloy, it forms at 1140 °C.
Most of the engineering alloy materials belong to
this range of alloy.
136
LEDEBURITE
NMK
 Pig iron, the most important engineering
RVS SOET MECH

material, is ledeburite.
137
NMK RVS SOET MECH
138
LEDEBURITE
NMK RVS SOET MECH
139
LEDEBURITE
MARTENSITE
NMK
 Martensite is the super saturated solid solution
RVS SOET MECH

of carbon in α-Iron.
 It is formed when steel is very rapidly cooled from the
austenitic state.
 It exhibits a characteristic acicular or needle like
structure. 140
MARTENSITE
NMK
 It is very hard more brittle and low ductility
RVS SOET MECH

properties.
 There is an increase in specific volume during
formation of martensite from austenite.
141
MARTENSITE
NMK
 As a result internal stresses are set up in the
RVS SOET MECH

materials leading to the formation of minute
cracks.
142
MARTENSITE (RED AND YELLOW
MARTENSITE. GREEN: AUSTENITE)
NMK
RVS SOET MECH
143
TROOSTITE
NMK
 Troosite is the mixture of radial lamella of
RVS SOET MECH

ferrite and cementite. In fact, it differs from
pearlite only in the degree of fitness.
 This constituents is also known as troostite
pearlite.
144
TROOSTITE
NMK
 It is the microstructure consisting ferrite and
RVS SOET MECH

finely divided cementite, produced on tempering
martensite below 450 °C
145
TROOSTITE
NMK
 It is formed by the decomposition of austenite
RVS SOET MECH

when cooled at a rate slower than that which
will yield a martensitic structure and faster than
that which will produce a sorbitic structure.
146
TROOSTITE
NMK
 It has hardness intermediate between
RVS SOET MECH

martensite and sorbite.
147
NMK RVS SOET MECH
148
TROOSTITE
SORBITE
NMK
 Sorbite is the microstructure consisting ferrite,
RVS SOET MECH

and finely divided cementite, produced on
tempering martensite above 450°C
149
SORBITE
NMK
 This constituents is also known as sorbitic
RVS SOET MECH

pearlite.
 It is formed by the decomposition of austenite
when cooled at a rate slower than that which
will produce a pearlitic structure
150
SORBITE
NMK
 Though sorbitic steel is slightly less ductile than
RVS SOET MECH

pearlite steel, its tensile and yield strength are
high.
 The sorbite steels are often known as Toughened
steels.
151
NMK RVS SOET MECH
152
SORBITE
SORBITE
NMK
Note:
RVS SOET MECH

 All the pearlite, troosite and sorbite are ferrite-
cementite mixtures having lamellar structure.
 However they are distinguished by their degree of
dispersion.
 Pearlite has corase pearlite.

153
SORBITE
NMK
 Troosite has fine pearlite
RVS SOET MECH

 And sorbite has medium pearlite
154
BAINITE
NMK
 Bainite is a decomposition product of austenite,
RVS SOET MECH

consisting of an aggregate of ferrite and carbide.
 Bainite is obtained by transformation of pearlite
higher temperature ( has a feathery structure) is
called upper bainite.
155
BAINITE
NMK
 Lower bainite provides high mechanical
RVS SOET MECH

properties and that is why it is extensively
used for components of machine and structures.
 Bainite has hardness in between the hardness
of pearlite and martensite.
156
NMK RVS SOET MECH
157
BAINITE
IRON/CARBON ALLOY PHASE DIAGRAM
NMK
RVS SOET MECH
158
NMK RVS SOET MECH
159

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ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND

Application of EMAM(In Industry):

 Knowledge on the structure

Review (Not for Exam)

 BCC, (Body cubic centre) structure

 ASTM grain size number

 Classification of steel and cast Iron,

UNIT:II HEAT TREATMENT

Structures Machines Devices

Metals and alloys

invar, super alloys

Ceramic and Organic polymers

Glass fiber- reinforced

UNIT:I CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND

creation, formation, structure, organization,

2.PHASE: It is a Physically and chemically

The elements present in the

system are called component. A system may

consist of two or more components.

 An alloy is defined as a combination of two or

more elements, of which one of the element should be

a metal in major proportion.

 The others could be metals or non-metals, for eg:

Brass (CU-Zn), Steel (Fe-C)

 Uses of pure metals

1. High electrical conductivity

3. Corrosion resistance are required.

These properties are generally at a maximum value in pure metals.

 Alloy can be either a single phase or a mixture

 A phases is anything which is homogeneous and

 In solid state alloys of three are three possible

 If an alloy has a single phase, it could be either

 If the alloy is a mixture it could be composed of

 A Solution can be defined as a homogeneous mixture

in which the atoms or molecules of one substance are

dispersed at random into another substance.

1 . Solute: A solute is the minor part of

2. Solvent: Solvent constitutes the major portion of

Both the solute and the solvent can be solid,

Solid solution may be defined as a

Space lattice is defined as an array of

points in three dimensions in which every point

has surroundings identical to that every other

point in the array.

 In such a case we have a solid metal in which the

interatomic state which existed in the liquid solution

has been persevered after solidification, and it is

known as a solid solution.

 In a solid solution the atom occur in a definite

geometrical pattern, which is usually a slightly

 Ni-Cu alloys (Monel metal)

 Au-Ag alloys(Sterling silver)

solute-Atom of Metal-B Solvent-Atoms of zinc Metal-A

 In substitutional solid solution, there is a direct

substitution of one type of atom for another.

 so that solute atoms(cu) enter the crystal to take

positions normally occupied by solvent atoms (e.g.,

 The alloy is said to be in a disordered condition if

in the formation of a substitutional solid

solution, the solute atoms do not occupy any

specific position but are distributed at random in

the lattice structure of the solvent.