ULTRASONIC MACHINING

TOPICS THAT WILL BE DISCUSSED

• OVERVIEW OF THE PROCESS
• WORKING PRINCIPLE
• ELEMENTS OF THE PROCESS
• MECHANICS OF METAL REMOVAL/CUTTING
• PARAMETERS AFFECTING THE PERFORMANCE OF
MACHINING
• PROCESS CAPABILITY
• APPLICATIONS
• ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS
• ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
• RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN USM PROCESS
 OVERVIEW OF THE PROCESS
• USM is a mechanical type of non-traditional machining process.
• The term ‘ultrasonic’ is used to describe a vibratory wave of frequency above
that of the upper frequency limit of the human ear i.e., frequencies >20kHz.
• Upper frequency range of ultrasonic is largely dependent on the Generator.
• There are two types of waves, namely, Shear waves and Longitudinal waves.
• Longitudinal waves are mostly used in ultrasonic applications since they are
easily generated. They can be propagated in solids, liquids and gases and can
travel at a high velocity so that their wavelength is short in most media.
• Velocity of the wave can be calculated for a given solid material using,
Sonic velocity = 𝐸/ρ[𝑚(𝑚 − 1)/(m2-m-2)]1/2
E--->Young’s Modulus
(1/m0--->Poisson’s Ratio
ρ--->density of the material
• The device for converting any type of energy
into ultrasonic waves is called ultrasonic
transducer.
• Most industrial applications employ
transducers energized by electrical power at
the required frequency.
• The electrical energy is converted into
mechanical vibrations, and for this the
piezoelectric effect in natural or synthetic
crystals, or the Magnetostrictive effect
exhibited by some metals is utilized.
• In addition to machining or cutting, ultrasonics find
many other engineering applications:
-Casting and Welding of metals
-Forming of plastics
-Measurement of velocity of moving fluids
-Measurement of density, viscosity and elastic constants
-Measurement of hardness and grain size determination
of metals
-Nondestructive residual stress determination
-Flaw detection, leak detection,etc.
• The use of ultrasonics in the medical field for the
diagnosis and treatment of certain diseases has also
been reported.
• Ultrasonic machining is a process in which material is removed due to the action of
abrasive grains.
• Abrasive particles are driven into the work surface by a tool oscillating normal to the
work surface at high frequency.
• Tool is made of soft material, oscillated at frequencies of the order of 20 to 30 kHz
with an amplitude of about 0.02mm.
• Tool is pressed against the work piece with a load of a few kilograms and fed
downwards continuously as the cavity is cut in the work.
• Tool is shaped as the approximate mirror image of the configuration of the cavity
desired in the work.
• The excitement to the tool is mostly given by means of magnetostrictive transducer.
• In USM, the principle of longitudinal magnetostriction is used. When an object made
of ferromagnetic material is placed in the continuously changing magnetic field, a
change in its length takes place. The coefficient of magnetostrictive elongation(Em) is
defined as, Em=ΔL/L
L--> length of magnetostrictor coil
ΔL-->change in the length of coil
• In USM, transducer converts high frequency electrical signal into high frequency
linear mechanical motion(vibration). These high frequency vibrations are transmitted
to the tool via tool holder. For achieving optimum MRR, tool and tool holder are
designed so that resonance can be achieved.
• Resonance( or maximum amplitude of vibration) is achieved when the frequency of
vibration matches with the natural frequency of tool and tool holder assembly.
• The slurry, which is made of abrasive particles
suspended in a liquid, is fed into the cutting zone
under pressure.
• A concentration of about 30 per cent is the
optimum from the point of view of pump design
and of achieving adequate penetration.
• The rate of machining is not a function of load or
imposed stresses on the tool.
• There appears to be no simple relationship
between the machining rate and the physical
characteristics of work material, such as tensile
strength, per cent elongation, microhardness or
impact strength.
• This process is employed to machine hard and brittle
materials( both electrically conductive and non-
conductive) having hardness usually greater than 40 RC
• USM gives low MRR but it is capable to machine
intricate cavities in single pass in fragile or/and hard
materials.
• In USM, there is no direct contact between the tool
and work piece hence it is a good process for
machining very thin and fragile components.
• A brittle material can be machined more easily than a
ductile one.
• It is considered as a very safe process because it does
not involve high voltage, chemicals, mechanical forces
and heat.
 WORKING OF THE PROCESS
• Animation or video of working.
• Steps:
1. As power is supplied to the generator(High power sine wave
generator), it converts low frequency(50 or 60Hz) electrical power to
high frequency(≥ 20kHz) electrical power.
2. This high frequency electrical signal is transmitted to the transducer,
which converts high frequency electrical signal into high frequency low
amplitude mechanical vibration.
3. Tool holder or Tool cone attached to the transducer receives the high
frequency low amplitude vibration and depending on the need of
machining, it amplifies or sometimes non-amplifies the amplitude of
received vibration and passes into the tool. Thereby tool vibrates at
ultrasonic frequency.
4. Simultaneously abrasive slurry is made to flow into the gap between
tool and work piece. As the abrasive particles in the slurry comes
under the tool, tool will push these particles with very high velocity,
thereby particles will gain high kinetic energy and as they go and strike
the work surface. Since this high K.E. is greater than the work material
yield strength so the material fails by brittle fracture and thereby metal
cutting takes place.
ELEMENTS OF THE PROCESS

USM Machine Layout

Schematic representation of USM process
• The main elements of this process are:
1. Work material
2. Tool cone and tool tip (vibration amplifier)
3. Abrasive slurry
4. Acoustic head (Transducer with liquid medium)
5. Tool feed mechanism
6. Abrasive feed mechanism
7. Generator
1. WORK MATERIAL
• Both ductile and brittle materials can be
machined with this process but the
machining is not efficient and economic for
ductile materials.
• For soft and ductile materials there are
other process which are efficient and
economically worth in machining.
• So in general brittle and hard materials like
glass, ceramics, refractories, etc. are
machined with this process.
2. TOOL CONE AND TOOL TIP
TOOL CONE or TOOL HOLDER
• Tool cone virtually transmits the energy from the
transducer to the tool tip and, in some cases,
amplifies the amplitude of vibration.
• Therefore, the material of the tool should have good
acoustic properties and high resistance to fatigue
cracking.
• Commonly used materials for the tool holder are
Monel, Titanium and Stainless steel
-Because of good brazing as well as acoustic
properties, Monel is commonly used material for
low amplitude applications.
-High amplitude application requires good fatigue
strength.
• Tool holder may be amplifying or non-amplifying.
-Non-amplifying tool holders have circular cross
section and give the same amplitude at both the
ends.
-Amplifying tool holders give as much as 6 times
increased tool motion. It is achieved by stretching
and relaxing the tool holder material. Such a tool
holder yields MRR upto 10 times higher than non-
amplifying tool holder.
-Amplifying tool holders are more expensive,
demand higher operating cost and yield poorer
surface quality.
Exponential Tapered Stepped

Different shapes of Tool holder

TOOL or TOOL TIP
• Tool geometry governs the shape of the impression or
cavity to be produced on the work material.
• The area of the tip influences the rate of penetration.
-Smaller the contact area, the better the abrasive flow
under the tool and the higher the penetration rate.
-for longer flow path, the cutting is inefficient because of
poor scavenging action from the innermost areas of the
cutting zone.
• The choice of material for the tool is very vital because the
cost of making the tool and the time required to change
tools are critical factors in the economics of USM. Also the
tool tip has to withstand vibrations and it should not fail or
wear out quickly.
• Most of the wear occurs at the end and wear at the sides is
about ten times less.
• The use of Tungsten carbide as a tool material presents
many problems in shaping the tool, also the cost of such a
tool will be high.
• Tools are usually made of relatively ductile materials(brass,
stainless steel, mild steel, etc.) so that the tool wear
rate(TWR) can be minimized.
• Value of the TWR or MRR depends upon the kind of
abrasives, work material and tool material.
• Surface finish of the tool is important because it will affect
the surface finish obtained on the work material.
• To safeguard tool and tool holder against their fatigue
failure, they should not have scratches or machining marks.
• Tools should be properly designed to account for overcut.
• Silver brazing of the tool holder minimizes the fatigue
problem associated with screw attachment method.
3. ABRASIVE SLURRY(Abrasive + liquid medium)
ABRASIVE
• Some of the types of abrasives in use are:
- Aluminium oxide or Alumina (Al2O3)
- Boron carbide(B4C)
- Silicon carbide(SiC)
- Diamond dust
• B4C is most expensive abrasive material but is best suited for
cutting Tungsten carbide, Tool steel and Precious stones.
• The problem with Al2O3 is that it wears fast and soon looses its
cutting power.
• SiC used widely in many applications
• Diamond and Rubies are nicely cut by using diamond powder
which ensures good accuracy, surface finish and cutting rates.
• Boron silico carbide is a new promising abrasive, which has an
abrasive power 8 to 12 percent greater than that of B4C.
• The size of abrasives varies between 200 and 2000
grit.
-Coarse grades are good for roughing.
-Finer grades(1000 grit) are used for finishing.
-Extremely fine grades of 1200 – 2000 grit are used
only for a finishing pass over jobs of extreme
accuracy.
• In actual practice, the surface roughness of the
machined face is governed by the
-Work material
-Roughness on tool surface
-Vibration amplitude
-Fineness of abrasive grit
-Efficient slurry circulation.
LIQUID MEDIA (SUSPENSION MEDIUM)
• Functions:
-Acts as an acoustic bond between the work piece and the vibrating tool.
-Helps efficient transfer of energy between the work piece and the tool.
-Acts as a coolant.
-Provides a medium to carry the abrasive and swarf (worn out particles).

• Characteristics of a good suspension media are:

-Density, approximately equal to that of abrasive.
-Good wetting properties to wet the tool, work material and abrasive.
-High thermal conductivity and specific heat for efficient removal of heat
from the cutting zone.
-Low viscosity to carry the abrasive down the sides of the hole between
the tool and the work piece.
-Non-corrosive properties to avoid corrosion of the work piece and tool.

• Water is frequently used as the liquid carrier since it satisfies most of

the above requirements.
4. ACOUSTIC HEAD
• Transducer with liquid medium acts as acoustic head
for reducing the sound generated during tool
vibration.
• In USM, either of the two types of transducers are
used i.e.,
1.Piezoelectric type.
2.Magnetostrictive type.
• Piezoelectric Transducer
-Piezoelectric crystals(say quartz) generate a small
electric current when they are compressed. And also,
when an electric current is removed the crystal
attains its original size. This effect is known as
piezoelectric effect.
-These transducers are available upto a power
capacity of 900W (low power machines)
• Magnetostrictive Transducer
-These transducers are made with core materials and this
core is wounded with excitation coil. So when power is
supplied to the coil, magnetic field will be generated
through this coil and also there will be external magnetic
field of core. Due to these magnetic fields, coil will under go
change in length and thus vibrations are produced.
-These transducers are made of Nickel, or Nickel alloy
sheets.
-Their conversion efficiency (20-35%) is much lower than the
Piezoelectric transducers efficiency(upto 95%). Hence their
cooling is essential to remove waste heat.
-These type of transducers are available with power capacity
as high as 2.4 kW.(High power machines)
-With these transducers, maximum change in length i.e.,
amplitude of vibration, that can be achieved is 25μm.
5. TOOL FEED MECHANISM
• Functions of feed mechanism
-Bring the tool very slowly and close to the work piece.
-Provide adequate cutting force and sustain this during
cutting.
-Decrease the force at a specified depth.
-Overrun a small distance to ensure the required hole size
at the exist.
- Return the tool.
• For accurate working, it is vital that the feed
mechanism be precise and sensitive.
• Types of feed systems
- Counter weight systems are insensitive and inconvenient to adjust.
- Spring loaded system is quiet sensitive.
- Hydraulic or Pneumatic systems are used for high power rating
machines.
6. ABRASIVE FEED SYSTEMS
• For small scale productions, abrasive slurry is fed manually
i.e. by hand
• For large scale or high power machines, a pump (usually
centrifugal type) is used to supply the slurry through a
nozzle.
• A good method is to keep the slurry in a bath in the
cutting zone. This ensures a good supply and reduces any
tendency of the tool to scatter the slurry when amplitude
is large.
• Another effective method of supplying the slurry to the
cutting zone is via a hallow tool or holes in the work piece.
7. GENERATOR
• For USM machine, high power sine wave generator is
used, which converts the low frequency (60Hz) electrical
power into high frequency (20kHz) electrical power.
• This generator will have oscillator which is used for
converting input low frequency electrical signals into high
frequency sine wave form electrical signals.
• Then this high frequency electrical signals are transmitted
to the transducer which converts it into high frequency
low amplitude vibrations.
 MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING
• Metal cutting of this process is studied by many
researchers. Based on certain assumptions, they have
given estimates/ expression for the cutting rate.
• Here we will discuss M. C. Shaw’s thoery
- He considers that metal cutting by ultrasonics occurs
with four possible actions i.e.,
1. By throwing abrasive grains on to the work surface.
2. By hammering of abrasive grains on to the work
surface.
3. By erosion or cavitation
4. By chemical corrosion
• In the absence of abrasive particles, cutting rate due to
3rd and 4th action is extremely low.
• By neglecting 3rd and 4th action, an expression for
cutting rate is derived for both throwing action and
hammering action.
• For this he assumed the shape of abrasive particle as
spherical shape having diameter ‘D’
• Volume cutting rate for both throwing model and
hammering model is,
V=KK1K2(h3/D)1/2 f
K--> probability of active grains under tool in one cycle
K1 and K2 --> Constants
h--> depth of crater formed on the work surface
f--> frequency of tool vibration
• Throwing Model
h= ∏afD(ρa/6σ)1/2
Where, a/2--> amplitude of tool vibration
ρa -->density of abrasive
σ --> mean stress acting on the work surface
• Hammering Model
hw=[4Favg a D/ σw ∏ K2 (j+1)]1/2
Where, Favg -->Average or mean static force on the grain
σw -->stress acting on the work material
j=htl/hw
 PROCESS PARAMETERS
• Performance of the USM process is expressed interms
of MRR (major), Surface finish and Accuracy.
• Performance of this process depends on the following
parameters:
- Abrasives: Size and Concentration
- Tool and Tool holder: Frequency and Amplitude of
vibration, Material
- Work material hardness
• Effect of these parameters on the machining
performance is discussed based on the researchers
results.
• Effect of Grain Diameter:
On MRR
- Goetze: Cutting rate increases linearly
with grain size.
- Neppiras & Foskett: Non-linear effect
of grain size on the cutting rate.
- So non-linear relation between grain
size and cutting rate is considered.
- With the increase in grain size cutting
rate also increasing upto some point
and there after there will be negative
effect. The size of grain at which
cutting rate is maximum is called
optimum grain size.
- This optimum grain size depends on
the amplitude of tool vibration.
 On Surface Finish and Accuracy
- Surface finish and Accuracy are greatly influenced by
the grain size.
- For finer grains, surface finish and accuracy of
dimensions will be good.
- For coarse grains, poor surface finish and poor
accuracy of dimensions will be obtained.
- For better accuracy and surface finish, it is better to
use a set of tools and more than one size of abrasive
grains in stages, as follows:
Stage 1: Undersize tool, High frequency, Coarse grain.
Stage 2: Undersize tool, High frequency, Finer grain.
Stage 3: Full size tool, Low frequency, Very fine grains.
• Effect of Slurry: On Cutting
rate(MRR)
-Based on results of researchers,
it is found that a raise in cutting
rate can be achieved with an
increase in slurry concentration.
-Neppiras & Foskett: Showed
that cutting rate is maximum
when slurry concentration is
between 30 to 40% (Abrasive/
Water mixture).
-Cutting rates can also be
increased with improved slurry
circulation and with increase in
pressure of slurry circulation.
• Effect of Amplitude and Frequency
of tool vibration on Cutting
rate(MRR):
- Miller : found that for a given
material, Cutting rate bears a linear
relationship with amplitude.
- Goetze : According to him, Cutting
rate increases linearly with an
increase in both amplitude &
frequency.
- Rosenberg et. al. : found that
Cutting rate is proportional to the
square of amplitude.
- Pentland & Ektermanis: in their
results confirmed that Cutting rate
is proportional to the square of
amplitude.
- Shaw : indicated that Cutting rate is
proportional to (amplitude)3/4.
- Neppiras & Foskett: indicated
that non-linear relationship
between Cutting rate and
amplitude as well as frequency.
- Shaw and Goetze, in their
experiments predicted a linear
relationship between Cutting rate
and frequency.
- So there are discrepancies in both
Amplitude and Frequency results
against Cutting rate from the
above studies. It can be
concluded that,
Cutting rate α (amplitude)2
Non-linear variation of Cutting
rate with Frequency
• Effect of Work material
hardness on Cutting
rate(MRR):
-Rosenberg : who observed
frequency dependence to
be interrelated with work
and tool failure
characteristics.
-He found a higher rate
increase in the removal rate
with frequency in brittle
materials than in ductile
materials.
 PROCESS CAPABILITY
• This process cuts the material efficiently when the work
material hardness is greater than 40 HRC.
• Tolerances that can be achieved with this process ranges
between 7 to 12 μm.
• Holes as small as 76 μm have been achieved.
• Hole depths upto 51mm have been easily achieved. For
higher depths special flushing technique is used.
• Aspect ratio(Depth to hole dia.) of 40:1 has been achieved.
• Penetration rate(linear material removal rate) achieved
with this process ranges from 0.025 to 25 mm/min.
• Average Volume material removal rate achieved with this
process is 300 mm3/min.
• Surface finish achieved with this process varies from 0.25 to
0.75μm.
• In this process, accuracy is measured using overcut
(clearance between the too and work piece).
-Radial overcut as low as 1.5 to 4.0 times the mean abrasive
grain size can be achieved.
-Overcut depends on the work material and method of tool
feed parameters.
-Non-uniform overcut along the machined depth results in
the formation of Conicity in the machined cavity.
-This conicity can be reduced by: Using higher static load on
tool; Direct injection of slurry into the machining zone;
Using negative taper tool.
-For cylindrical drilled holes, Out of roundness is used as
measure of accuracy.
-Due to improper settings of tool, lateral vibrations of tool
are generated and leads to out of roundness in the cavity.
-Out of roudness depends on the type of work material
also.
 APPLICATIONS
• Manufacturing of forming dies in hardened steel
and sintered carbides.
• Manufacturing of wire drawing dies, cutting nozzles
for jet machining applications in sapphire, and
sintered carbides.
• Slicing hard brittle materials such as glass, ceramics,
and carbides.
• Coining and engraving applications.
• Boring, sinking, blanking,, and trepanning.
• Thread cutting in ceramics and glass by rotating the
tool or the WP.
• USM can perform machining operations like
Products produced using USM
a) Engraving a medal made of agate
b) Piercing and blanking of glass
c) Producing a fragile graphite electrode for
EDM
d) Sinking a shearing die in hardened steel or
WC
e) Production of outside contour and holes of
master cutters made of zirconium oxide
(ZrO2) of a textile machine
f) Drilling fine holes Ф = 0.4 mm in glass
 ADVANTAGES
• It can be used to machine hard, brittle and fragile materials like
carbides, glass, ceramics, semi conductors, marbles, gem stones,
ruby etc.
• No heat is generated in the work, therefore no significant changes
in physical structure of work material.
• It can be used to machine non conductive materials (having poor
electrical conductivity) those are not machined by EDM or ECM.
• It can be used for machining round, square, irregular shaped holes
and surface impressions.
• Intricate and complex shapes and cavities in both electric and
nonelectric materials can be readily machined ultrasonically
• Especially, in the sector of electrically nonconductive materials, the
USM process is not in competition with other nontraditional
machining processes regarding accuracy and removal rates
 LIMTATIONS
• Lower metal removal rate
• It is difficult to drill deep holes, as slurry movement is restricted. Poor l/d
ratio.
• USM can be used only when the hardness of work is more than 45 HRC.
• High tool wear rate compared to other non-traditional methods.
• The tool suffers excessive frontal and side wear when machining
conductive materials such as steels and carbides. The side wear destroys
the accuracy of holes and cavities, leading to a considerable conicity
error.
• The accuracy of the machined surface gets lost due to setting up of
strong lateral vibrations. This occurs if the axis of the tool and horn,
which are brazed together, are not properly aligned with transducer axis.
In such a case, the tool needs to be redesigned.
• Every job needs a special high-cost tool, which adds to the machining
cost