Reproduction, Genetics

and Biotechnology
Miss Meina (Year 9 Science)
Female Menstrual Cycle

 What is the menstrual cycle?

 The menstrual cycle is the regular natural change that occurs in the female
reproductive system that makes pregnancy possible.
 Involves the release of eggs and hormones from the ovary.

 The menstrual cycle

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vXrQ_FhZmos
Answer questions from the worksheet
 Female Menstrual Cycle
There are 4 phases in the menstrual cycle.
 1. Menstrual Phase:
 The first day of the period is the start of your menstrual cycle (Day 1).
 The uterus lining breaks down and sheds. You begin menstruation.
 At the same time an immature egg inside a small sac of cells called a
follicle starts to develop. The egg and follicle keep growing until about
Day 14.
Female Menstrual Cycle
 2. Preparing for Ovulation (Follicular) Phase:
 The body prepares for ovulation. The follicle and egg get bigger until
about day 14 of the cycle.
 This maturing process produces oestrogen, which makes the lining of the
uterus thicken with nutrients and blood, so it will be able to provide the
egg with the support it needs in case of pregnancy.
Female Menstrual Cycle
 3. Ovulation Phase:
 Happens about Day 14.
 During ovulation, the mature egg bursts from the follicle and is finally
released from the ovary into the fallopian tube (oviduct) and travels
towards the uterus. Muscle contractions and cilia move the egg along. It
takes about a week to reach the uterus.
 During this time, if the egg comes in contact with sperm, it is fertilised.
(This is when a female can get pregnant)
 Sperm can live inside a woman's reproductive tract for about 3 to 5 days after
sexual intercourse!

 For pregnancy to take place, a sperm cell must fertilise the egg within 12 to 24
hours of ovulating.
Female Menstrual Cycle
 4. Luteal Phase (End of menstrual cycle):
 After the egg has travelled down the fallopian tube it gets to the uterus. The
body starts to produce a new hormone called progesterone. This hormone will
make sure the uterus keeps building up it’s lining.
 If the egg is fertilized it implants in the wall of the uterus and starts to develop.
The body does not shed the uterus lining so there is no period. (Pregnant)
 If the egg is not fertilized, levels of oestrogen and progresterone drop. The uterus
does not need to maintain the nutritious lining it built up so it starts to break it
down.
 The thick lining and blood that was built up during the menstrual cycle will be
shed from the uterus and leave the body through the vagina. This is the
menstruation and it means that a new cycle begins.
Purpose of Ovulation
 What is the purpose of ovulation?
 Knowing when a woman is ovulating each month is helpful because she is
the most fertile — or able to become pregnant —around the time of
ovulation.
 If a woman is not ovulating she cannot become pregnant.
 Menopause
 What is menopause?
 Menopause is the time in a woman's life (typically between the ages of 45 and 50)
when menstruation stops happening.

 What does this mean?

 She can no longer get pregnant (no ovulation).
Fertilisation

 Fertilisation is the moment when a sperm and egg join together, and
the genes from the mother and father combine to form a new life
(zygote).
 Implantation
 Implantation is when the fertilised egg attaches to the lining of the
uterus to grow and develop.
Review of Male and Female
Reproductive system
 Worksheet
 Genetics
 What do you know about genetics?
 The transmission of heritable characteristics from one generation to the
next involves DNA and genes
 Heritable characteristics: Any traits that can be directly linked to what is
contained in your DNA
 Examples: eye colour, hair colour, skin colour, some diseases
 Genes carry the information that determines your traits, which are
features or characteristics that are passed on to you — or inherited —
from your parents.

 Where do you get your genes from?

 From the egg and sperm during fertilisation.
 (50% genes from mum and 50% from dad)
 Genes- chromosomes
 Genes are found on tiny spaghetti-like structures called chromosomes.
Chromosomes are found inside cell nuclei.
 DNA – Deoxyribonucleic acid
 DNA is short for deoxyribonucleic acid. It is in every cell of every living
thing.
 DNA is the material that carries all the information about how a living
thing will look and function.
 DNA in humans determines such things as what colour the eyes are and
how the lungs work.
 Each piece of information is carried on a different section of the DNA.
These sections are called genes.
 Genes are DNA sequences that instruct the cell on how to make a
protein.
 DNA – Deoxyribonucleic acid
 DNA is the complex chemical that carries genetic information. DNA is
contained in chromosomes, which are found in the nucleus of most cells.
 The gene is the unit of inheritance and different forms of the same gene are
called alleles.
 For example, the allele for eye colour.
Quick Quiz!
 https://www.bbc.com/education/guides/zkxrd2p/revision
History of DNA
 Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who experimented with pea
plants. In 1865 he hypothesised that there were ‘units of heredity’ that
provided the instructions that directed the growth and development of
organisms.
 (These units of heredity were later to be termed genes.)
 In 1869 a chemical known as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was first
discovered.
 History of DNA
 In 1950s Linus Pauling (US), Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins (England)
used x-ray crystallography to determine the shape of the DNA molecule.
 James Watson and Francis Crick (England) built scaled models of DNA hoping a
convincing structure would emerge.
 1951 Erwin Chargaff (American) used all the above information from all the
science discoveries to make his own discovery. He found the shape of DNA to be
a double helix.
 1953: James Watson and Francis Crick publish their description of DNA. They
describe it as a double-helix -two spirals held together by complementary base
pairs.
 History of DNA
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V6bKn34nSbk
 2 minute video about the history of DNA

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=35FwmiPE9tI
 Science History Rap Battle
 DNA Structure
 DNA is a long, thread-like molecule similar to the shape of a rope
ladder twisted into a spiral pattern – the double helix.
 The sides of the ladder are made of alternating
sugar and phosphate units.
S P

 (Sugar-phosphate back bone)

 DNA structure
The rungs of the ladder are made of
paired chemical units or bases called
amino acids. There are four different
bases:
Adenine A

Thymine T
Cytosine C
Guanine G
Adenine only pairs with Thymine
Guanine only pairs with Cytosine
DNA Structure
 The 4 bases make up the basic structure of the DNA of all living
organisms.
 The difference between the DNA of organisms is the number and
arrangement of the bases.
 A single molecule of DNA may be made of hundreds of thousands of
bases.
 Genes, DNA & Chromosomes
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hywRdDVR76A
 2 minute video
DNA

 Worksheet
 Mutations
 What is a mutation?
 Mutations are accidental changes in the genetic code. Mutations can lead to
missing or malformed proteins, and that can lead to disease.
 A gene mutation is a change in the order of bases on a strand of DNA.
 Example: colour blindness
 Chromosome mutations are due to change in either the chromosome structure
or the chromosome number of a cell.
 Example: Down's syndrome
 Chromosomes
 Chromosomes exist in pairs in each body cell, the members of each pair being
similar in size and shape.
 One of the pair was inherited from the father, the other from the mother, making
what is called a homologous pair.
 Most cells in your body therefore contain two of each type of chromosome. They
are referred to as diploid cells (somatic cells).
 In contrast, gametes contain only one of each type of chromosome. Hence, half of
the chromosomes in a haploid cell come from dad, the other half from mum.
 Gametes are known as haploid cells
(sex cells).
 Chromosomes
 In humans, each cell normally contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a
total of 46.
 Twenty-two of these pairs, called autosomes, look the same in both
males and females.
 The 23rd pair, the sex chromosomes, differ between males and females.
Females have two copies of the X chromosome, while males have one X
and one Y chromosome.
Numbers of chromosomes

 Worksheet
Mitosis

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f-ldPgEfAHI
 Mitosis
Mitosis
Phases of Mitosis
 Mitosis Review Quiz!
1. Mitosis is done by your body cells. What types of cells do not undergo mitosis?
 Sex cells do not undergo mitosis!
2. List 2 ways that mitosis is important for your body:
 Mitosis is important for growth and repair of body cells!
3. In mitosis, the cells that are created are __________________.
 In mitosis the cells that are created are identical!
4. What are chromosomes made of?
 Chromosomes are made of DNA and proteins.
5. In humans, how many chromosomes should be in each of the diploid cells after
mitosis?
 46 chromosomes in diploid cells.
6. What are the phases of mitosis?
 Prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase
Meiosis

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VzDMG7ke69g
 Meiosis
Meiosis
Mitosis and Meiosis

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CWw-S3t8XMw
 3 minute video comparing Mitosis and Meiosis
Meiosis Review Quiz!
1. What is the purpose of meiosis?
 The purpose of meiosis is to make gametes, also known as sperm and
egg cells.
2. How many chromosomes are in a sperm or egg cell?
 23 chromosomes in a sperm or egg cell.
3. How many divisions or stages of PMAT occur in meiosis?
 Two
4. How many cells are produced at the end of the meiosis? How many
chromosomes do they have?
 4 daughter cells with 23 chromosomes each.
5. Why is this important?
 It gives variety
Mitosis vs Meiosis

 Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis (worksheet)

Reproductive Technology
 What are some ways you know that someone can have a baby if they can’t get
pregnant naturally?
Reproductive Technology

 Reproductive technology is a term that includes all

current and anticipated uses of technology in human and
animal reproduction.
Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT)
 GIFT: Eggs are removed from a woman's ovaries, and placed
in one of the Fallopian tubes, along with the man's sperm.
IVF
 Invitro Fertilisation (IVF) –is an infertility treatment that takes
the man’s sperm and the woman’s eggs and combines them in the
laboratory so that several eggs are fertilised. Then they implant
the egg into the uterus.

 IVF technology involves more than one egg being fertilised.

This increases the possibility that more than one embryo will
be formed.
 Some of the embryos are frozen and others are implanted.
This increases the likelihood of multiple births.

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GeigYib39Rs
Ethical Issues- For IVF
 Embryos that are destroyed don’t feel anything or
suffer

 Genetic diseases could be reduced because of

screening the embryos

 Making people happy- why not help?

 Those who go through this process will likely be

loving parents
Ethical Issues- Against IVF
 Concerns in all situations include the child and his or her
welfare, including the right to have one biological mother
and father and to know them.

 Storage and destruction of excess IVF embryos, and research

involving embryos.

 Creation and destruction of embryos- Do scientists and

doctors have the right to play God? (Live or die)

 ‘Do no harm’? (some embryos are destroyed)

Artificial Insemination (AI)
 Artificial insemination (AI) is a method that introduces sperm into
the female genital tract without sexual intercourse taking place.
 The male partner’s sperm is obtained by masturbation, prepared,
and then inserted directly into the female using a syringe and
tube.
Artificial Insemination by donor (AID)
 Artificial insemination (AI) is a method that introduces
sperm into the female genital tract without sexual
intercourse taking place.
 Sperm from a donor is used to inseminate the female.
 ‘Donor banks’- places where people can donate their
sperm or eggs.
 What information is available about the
donor?
The non-identifying information available includes:
 Ethnic origin.
 Physical characteristics – height, build, eye and hair colour, and
skin tone.
 Social traits – level of education, occupation, hobbies, special
interests and skills.
 Medical history of the donor and his family.

 The donor-conceived person can request access to the donor’s

identity once he/she has reached the age of 18.
Review
 GIFT
 IVF
 Artificial Insemination
 Artificial Insemination by Donor
Why do we need donor banks?
 Single men
 Single women
 Heterosexual couples that have infertility or heath issues
 Same sex couples
Surrogacy
 Surrogacy is when an embryo from one couple is implanted into a second
woman and she proceeds with the pregnancy. This helps couples that
cannot have a child.
 A woman (the surrogate) offers to carry a baby through pregnancy on
behalf of another person or couple and then return the baby to the
intended parent(s) once it is born.
Ethical Issues- Surrogacy
 What are the rights and responsibilities of the surrogate?
 What are the rights of the child?
 Ethically and legally, you cannot pay someone to be your
surrogate!
 Playing God- not natural (religious reasons)
 Biological bond between surrogate and child
Review of last lesson
 What did we talk about?
 Sperm/egg donation
 Surrogacy
 Cloning
 Reproductive Technology- Cloning
 A clone is an exact copy or duplicate of another living
organism.
 Cloning is the product of asexual or one parent
reproduction.
 Clones are common in simple plants and animals.
 Complex organisms, which produce asexually, can produce
clones naturally, by producing identical twins.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nhGllCY8HzE Cloning
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NpaBgvTpfLY Dolly the sheep
Why use Cloning?

 An aid to farming and medical research.

 Animals which are disease resistant or
produce a large yield of milk or meat
(agricultural benefits).
 Tolead up to human cloning for organ
transplants etc
 Designer Babies
 A designer baby is a human embryo which has
been genetically modified, to produce desirable traits.
 “Creating desirable genes” by using IVF and choosing the
genes
 Examples:
 disease resistance
 sex
 hair color and other cosmetic traits- height
 athletic ability
 intelligence
 Designer Babies
 Embryos are created by in-vitro fertilization and grown
to the eight-cell stage, at which point one or two cells
are removed. Scientists then examine the DNA of these
cells for defects, alter them and only certain embryos
are replaced in the womb.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9bLHzf0fl1Y
My Sister’s Keeper
Designer Babies
 Since this technology has been developed some
people use this process to have children that will be
an exact match to an older sibling who is terminally
ill. This way there is always someone who can
donate organs, blood, bone marrow and other such
body parts.
Activity: Design your own baby

 Sex
 Hair, eye, skin colour
 Athletic ability- strong, fast, muscly, flexible etc
 Intelligence
 Musical ability
 Resistance to disease

 What are some of the issues associated with ‘designing a

baby’. Make a list of pros and cons.
Ethical Issues

 Unethical and unnatural to be able to create your own baby the

way you want it, while others argue that it could be used to stop
certain genetic diseases in babies.
 Many people see genetic altering as morally wrong because they
view it as not accepting your child the way it was.
 Ethical Issues
 Another issue people have with “designer babies” is the fact that
it might set the parents up for disappointment.
 If the child found out that their parents picked out how they look
or act, it could lead to many problems in the child/parent
relationships.
 The wealthy would be able to afford the selection of desirable
traits in their offspring, while those of lower socioeconomic
standing would not be able to access the same options.
Activity: Debate

Pros or cons IVF Surrogacy Cloning Designer

Babies

Pros

Cons

Each group will be asked to present their ideas.

 Case study 1

Helen wants a child. She isn't aiming to create a perfect child but she wants to undergo genetic
selection treatment. Helen has a problem with her DNA. It doesn’t affect her health, but it means that
most of her eggs don't carry all the genes needed for a baby to grow healthily. The result is that each
time she becomes pregnant, she miscarries.

Doctors suggest that Helen try a technique called pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD). Using PGD
scientists can screen embryos outside the womb, long before they develop into babies. They can select
just those embryos that carry healthy genes. This ensures the baby is free from genetic abnormalities.
Genetic technology seems the only way she can have a baby at all.

If Helen has a child this way, it's not really a designer baby at all. The embryo will be created from one
of Helen's eggs and her husband's sperm, just as in IVF. The genes will not be altered, or enhanced in
any way. The doctors simply choose an embryo that doesn't carry Helen's genetic disorder.

Your thoughts:

Would you allow Helen to have the treatment?

Reason for your choice?
 Case study 2

James was born on October 25th, 1992.

By the time he was 5 years old his parents noticed he was having problems with his running and
walking. After several medical consultations, James was diagnosed with ‘Duchenne Muscular
Dystrophy’. Duchenne is a genetically inherited disease that causes the slow yet progressive
breakdown of muscle tissue.

James’ parents would love another child but are aware that any other children they do have
will have a chance of developing Duchenne.
PGD (Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis) would allow James’ parents to select specific
embryos.
Should James’ parents be allowed PGD?
Your thoughts:
Would you allow James’ parents to have the treatment?
Reason for your choice?
 Case study 3

Phil and Sian have four daughters, but they wish to have a fifth child and would
really like to have a son. To ensure their next child is a boy they wish to undergo
genetic selection treatment.

Doctors can now check using PGD whether an embryo produced by IVF is a boy or a
girl depending on whether it contains an XX or XY pair of chromosomes and then
implant the chosen embryo into Sian. There is no medical reason for the couple to
have a male child but they both strongly believe a boy is needed to complete their
family and to carry on their family name.

Your thoughts:

Would you allow Phil and Sian to have the treatment?

Reason for your choice?
 Case study 4

A boy has been born to a British couple who want to use stem cells from his umbilical
cord to treat an older brother with a life threatening blood disorder.

The baby was genetically selected while he was still an embryo (using PGD) to be a
near perfect tissue match to the four-year-old brother so he can receive treatment.

The couple went to an American clinic for IVF treatment because the selection
procedure is not allowed in the UK.

Is it right to create a child for the sole purpose of attempting to treat a sibling with
a disorder?

Your thoughts:

Do you think the parents should have been allowed this treatment in the UK?
Reason for your choice?
 Review
 The Reproductive System (Boardworks)
 Chromosomes, Genes and DNA (worksheet)
BIOTECHNOLOGY

 What is Biotechnology?
 Biotechnology is technology that uses biological systems, living organisms or
parts of these to develop or create different products.

 Examples: antibiotics, insulin, vaccines, Genetically Modified Organisms

(GMOs)
Advantages of Biotechnology
Disadvantages of Biotechnology