Ch.

8, Randy Fujishin
 A problem-solving group is
three or more people who share
a common task, interact in a
face-to-face setting, and
influence one another.

 Four elements
 Three or More People
 Sharing a Common Task
 Interacting in a Face-to-Face
Setting
 Influencing One Another

2
 Group as a System
 A system is a set of objects that
interrelate with one another to
form a whole.

 If one object in the system

changes, the other objects
change in response.

 The emphasis in a systems

perspective is not on the
individual members, but rather
on the group as a whole.

 We can also view group

interaction as a living organism.

 Each group member is a part of

this living organism.

3
 Four principles of Groups as a System:

 Interdependence: Each group member

depends on all the other members in one
way or another.
 Synergy: Once the individual members
become interrelated and form a working
group, they acquire a collective life and
synergy—
 the whole becomes greater than the sum
of its parts.
 The group can take on characteristics—
 productivity, creativity, and
responsiveness—more than the
characteristics of any individual member.
 Adaptation: The problem-solving group
must remain flexible and willing to adapt
in order to cope with the changing
environment of people, issues, and
circumstances.
 Equifinality: The group must accept the
fact that there are many ways to
accomplish a goal or task, not just one
way.
 The concept of equifinality opens up the
possibility for creative approaches to
solving problems

4
 The Power of One:
 Your behavior, be it negative or
positive, influences the group’s
interaction and final product

 Group Formation:
 Four of the more common
reasons that people join groups
are
 interpersonal attraction: We
often join groups because of our
similarity in beliefs, ethnicity,
economic status, and age.
 group goals: People often join
groups because of the objectives
the group seeks to achieve.
 group activities: People join
groups because they are attracted
to the activities.
 group identity: Birds of a feather
often flock together.

 There is rarely only one reason

for group affiliation.

5
 Task and Social Dimensions of
Groups
 Once an individual becomes involved
in the group’s Process, this interaction
occurs in two different dimensions—
 the task dimension
 the social dimension

 The task dimension is the work of the

group.
 All efforts directed at solving the
problem are considered the domain of
the task dimension.
 From researching the problem to
implementing the solution

 The social dimension is the

interpersonal relationships among
group members, between one member
and another, and with the group as a
whole
 A change in the social dimension
produces a change in the task
dimension and vice versa

6
 Norms and Conformity

 Norms are the rules that regulate the

behavior of the group.
 They are the basic building blocks of
group interaction
 They make smooth, predictable
interaction possible
 Implicit norms are rules that are
understood by group members, either
consciously or unconsciously, but are
not announced verbally or in writing.
 Explicit norms are those rules that
are orally stated or written down as a
code of conduct or expected group
behavior

 Conformity is the adherence to group

norms.
 First, conformity to norms makes our
lives orderly, predictable, and
organized.
 Second, adherence to norms makes
group interactions more productive.
 Third, conformity to norms provides
each member with a sense of
belonging and acceptance

7
 The Four Phases of Group
Process
 Professor Aubrey Fisher has
identified a four phase
sequence of group development
that applies to most problem-
solving groups.
 This four-phase model consists
of
 orientation
 conflict
 emergence
 reinforcement

8
 The Four Phases of Group
Process
 Phase 1. Orientation. Most
members of new groups spend
their first meeting or two getting
to know one another.
 Primary tension—the
uneasiness group members feel
because they are unfamiliar with
one another—usually occurs
during the orientation phase.
 “break the ice”
 Group members begin to initiate
discussion about the nature and
scope of the task before them.
 They often state their opinions
and feelings in tentative, vague
language, and do not disclose
their positions

9
 The Four Phases of Group Process
 Phase 2. Conflict. During this phase,
group members discuss

 the nature and background of the

problem
 propose solutions
 debate the relative merits of the
solutions
 select the best solution or solutions.

 During the conflict phase, group

members begin to clarify opinions and
feelings about the issues.

 secondary tension—
 the tension caused by disagreement or
criticism over one’s ideas, evidence, or
proposed solutions.

 When conflict arises, be still and don’t

do anything for a brief period
 Be open, listen, and see what unfolds.

10
 The Four Phases of Group
Process
 Phase 3. Emergence. During the
third phase, group members
move from debate and conflict to
a possible solution that is
acceptable to all members

 Whereas the conflict phase

emphasizes differences of
opinion, the emergence phase
focuses on similarities

 During this time, decisions slowly

emerge

 Statements of agreement,
acceptance, and approval

 Finally, the group makes a

decision or adopts a solution

11
 The Four Phases of Group
Process
 Phase 4. Reinforcement. The
final phase occurs when group
members congratulate
themselves on a job well done.

 During this time, the group also

constructs an implementation
plan and timetable for the
agreed-on solution.

 Members often feel a strong

sense of group identity and
belonging.

 Disagreement, conflicts, and

arguments were successfully
negotiated and the group is
stronger because of it.

12
 Groupthink describes the
situation when a group departs
from rational, reality-based
decision making to irrational,
nonreality-based decision
making because the group is
too cohesive

 Having accomplished task

success and felt tight member
cohesiveness, groups can
occasionally experience
groupthink and believe that they
can “do no wrong.”

13
 Groupthink
 Closed minded
 pressure group members into
conformity
 forbid any outside input or
critical evaluation
 affects future decision making

 The group becomes a closed

system

14
 To avoid groupthink take the following
measures:

 1. Stress critical evaluation of the

group process.

 You can share your observations

about weaknesses in the group’s
operation.

 2. Discuss the group’s decision-

making process with a trusted
colleague or coworker outside the
group and report these “outside
perceptions” to the group members.

 3. Play the devil’s advocate and

challenge prevailing opinions and
attitudes, even if you personally agree
with them.

 4. Invite a qualified individual from the

outside to observe the group’s
decision-making process.

15
 Decision by the leader after
discussion with the group or
without their input

 Advantages
 It minimizes wasted time
 reinforces the traditional
hierarchical business structure
 efficient

 Disadvantages
 lack of commitment to the
solution by the group
 superficial or minimal group
discussion and analysis
 development of an adversarial
relationship between the leader
and group members.

16
 Decision by majority rule or voting is
the most commonly used method of
group decision

 51 percent or two-thirds vote

 Advantages
 Decisions can be made quickly
 Time can be saved
 Used effectively in procedural matters
within the operation of the group
 e.g. voting on meeting times,
placement of items on the agenda,
and other administrative tasks

 Disadvantages
 there are always winners and losers
 majority rule provides no protection for
the minority
 losers often suffer because they feel
their position was discarded by the
majority

17
 Decision by compromise is a
bartering technique
 Members of one point of view will give
up some aspect of their solution in
exchange for support from the other
members
 Compromise combines aspects of the
leading alternatives or most popular
solutions being discussed
 Compromise often results in low
commitment to the solution, as final
solution may be weakened or diluted
 Advantages
 When position of members
representing one point of view is
incompatible with those representing
another point of view, it will permit the
discussion to continue

 Disadvantages
 it is often used too early in discussion
and prevents productive exploration of
alternatives
 produces decisions or solutions that
are watered down, “averaging out”
differences between various points of
view.

18
 Decision by arbitration comes
from outside the group
 For instance, a dispute between
labor and management often
requires decisions to be made
by an arbitrator, an impartial
third party whose decision both
sides have agreed to be binding

 Advantage
 The arbitrator will break an
impasse or stalemate

 Disadvantage
 The loser in the decision must
accept the ruling of the
arbitrator.

19
 Consensus is one of the most
effective small group decision making
methods
 Consensus occurs when all members
of the group find the decision
acceptable
 The decision may not be each
member’s first choice, but each
member regards it as workable and
acceptable
 It is not “watered down” like
compromise rather all members
accept the solution as workable

 Advantages
 it increases member satisfaction with
the decision
 Any member can prevent or block the
acceptance of a decision
 So the ultimate decision is the product
of thorough discussion
 it increases the quality of the decisions

 Disadvantage
 It requires a tremendous amount of
time

20
 Guidelines for reaching
consensus

 Be open to the ideas and

opinions of others

 Seek win-win solutions

 Encourage difference of opinion

which leads to higher quality
decisions

 Avoid conflict-reducing
techniques like vote,
compromise or average

 Include the participation of all

members

21
 An agenda is an agreed-on set of steps the group
will follow to solve a problem
 The following are the steps of problem-solving

 Step 1. Check In
 provide members with the opportunity to establish a
supportive and trusting social dimension

 Step 2. Analyze the Problem

 Fruitful problem analysis requires that group
members research the problem before coming to the
meeting and are ready to discuss the following
questions:

 1. What is the problem?

 2. What is the question of policy? (“What should be
done about____?”)
 3. What is the nature of the problem?
 4. Whom does the problem affect?
 5. How serious is the problem?
 6. What are causes of the problem?
 7. What solutions have been attempted before?
 8. What will happen if the problem is not solved?
 9. What are the constraints for a workable solution?
 10. What are three possible solutions? (Each
member brings three to the
 discussion.)

22
 Step 3. Brainstorm Possible
Solutions
 The purpose of brainstorming is
to generate a large number of
(20-30) ideas for potential
solutions without evaluation

 Here are some guidelines for a

successful brainstorming session:

 1. Evaluation of any idea is not

permitted.
 2. Questions, storytelling,
explanations, and tangential
talking are not permitted.
 3. Quantity of ideas, not quality, is
desired.
 4. The wilder the ideas the better.
 5. Combine ideas from ones you
have already listed.

23
 Step 4. Evaluate the Better
Solutions
 Once the group has deleted one-
half to two-thirds of the
(numbered) ideas, then the real
task of step 4 begins—discussion
of the strengths and weaknesses
of the better solutions on the list.

 Here are some guidelines for a

more effective discussion:

 1. Discuss one solution at a time.

 2. Consider both its strengths and
weaknesses.
 3. Move to another solution
quickly. Don’t get stuck.
 4. Avoid lumping solutions into
one large conglomeration.
 5. Don’t be afraid to challenge a
solution.

24
 Step 5. Reach Consensus on the Best
Solution
 During the discussion of the better
solutions, two or possibly three solutions
will keep surfacing

 Let group members know they may be

arriving at some agreement or common
ground.

 Begin looking for areas of agreement

within the group as members narrow the
selection to two or three.

 Generate a few related solutions to the

two or three remaining in hopes of
discovering one solution that is workable
and acceptable to all the group members.

 Test for consensus by asking group

members if they can live with the solution.

 They might object

 Just smile and repeat the question that

tests for consensus: “But can you live
with this solution for a period of time?”

25
 Step 6. Implement the
Solution
 Implementation involves three
steps—
 planning a timetable
 assigning implementation tasks
 evaluating the implementation
process.

 Plan a timetable. The group

needs to divide the
implementation of the solution
into its component (specific)
objectives and assign dates for
the completion of those
objectives.

26
 Assign tasks. Assign individual
members to complete the various
tasks.
 Make certain each member
knows the task and the date by
which the task must be
accomplished.

 Evaluate implementation.
Evaluation of the group’s
effectiveness in implementing the
solution can be accomplished
during a face-to-face meeting or
over the telephone.
 Changes in procedure or
approach may be necessary for
future groups.
 Additional resources can be
secured
 Members may need to be
encouraged or reminded

27
 Reanalyze the problem (if necessary).
 If the solution fails to meet the group’s
expectations or standards, members
may need to return to the beginning of
the standard agenda and reanalyze
the problem in step 2.

 Many times, it’s only after a solution

has been implemented that
incomplete, inaccurate, or faulty
analysis of the problem becomes
apparent.

 Encourage members to be creative

and reanalyze the problem

 Groups may not necessarily follow a

linear, step- by- step process when
they solve problems in the real world.
 More often, the process is circular and
dynamic, not following clear-cut
divisions.
 Your group may begin with an analysis
of the problem, skip to a discussion of
a solution, and then return to problem
analysis.

28
 The more information and
evidence a group has, the
greater the probability its efforts
will produce a workable and
acceptable solution

 Research for the various stages

of the problem-solving process

 The questions from step 2 of

your standard agenda—
analyzing the problem—will help
you focus your researching
efforts.

29
 What is the problem? The
group should agree on what is
the problem.
 Avoid vague, general
descriptions of the problem

 Not “crime”, but “department

store shoplifting by preteens in
Santa Clara County.”

 What is the question of

policy? By constructing a
question of policy, you are
ensuring that the group
proposes an action plan: “What
should be done about …?”

 For example, “What should be

done about department store
shoplifting by preteens in Santa
Clara County?”

30
 What is the nature of the
problem? What exactly is the
problem?
 What are the parameters of the
problem?
 Are there any limitations or
special conditions presented by
this problem?
 How long has the problem
existed?
 What is the history of the
problem?

 Whom does the problem

affect? Does the problem affect
primarily humans?
 Men, women, or children?
Young or old?
 Does the problem affect a
specific subgroup?

31
 How serious is the problem?
 Establish some measurement of
its magnitude, scope, and
significance.

 Try to obtain statistical information

describing the severity of the
problem.

 Interview experts.

 What are the causes of the

problem?
 It is a question of fact if you
discover evidence that proves the
cause or causes of the problem.

 It is also a question of value if

experts hold differing beliefs
about the cause or causes of the
problem.

32
 What solutions have been
attempted before?
 Discuss specific solutions that
have been attempted already to
reduce or eliminate the problem

 What will happen if the

problem is not solved?
 What do experts or the literature
say will happen if the problem is
not solved?
 Once again, this is primarily a
question of value because
experts will have differing views.

33
 What are the constraints for a
workable solution?
 Suggest at least three specific
constraints for a workable solution
to the problem.

 For instance, three criteria for a

solution to the problem of
reducing neighborhood theft may
be that the solution
 (1) costs less than $500 to
implement
 (2) be implemented within sixty
days
 (3) involve participation by all
residents.

 These constraints will help

determine the merit of the
solutions considered by the
group.

34
 What are three possible
solutions?
 After you have completed
researching the problem
 brainstorm three solutions to
the problem.

 You may want to brainstorm

more, but try to keep it
manageable.

 You will be sharing your three

ideas during the group’s
brainstorming session.

35
Growth is the goal
 By participating in a problem-
solving group, your goal is to
grow and learn lessons along
the way.

Research the topic

 Most group members are
insufficiently prepared for
meetings, whether it’s reviewing
the minutes from the last
meeting, preparing a report, or
reading material they were
assigned.
 Come prepared to the meeting

36
Organize the discussion
 Follow the 6 step process of
decision making

 If you are not the elected or

assigned leader of the group,
you can still share the problem-
solving agenda with the
individual in charge and
recommend its use.

37
Unify the group
 When the group experiences
conflict, rather than always taking
a side and adding fuel to the fire,
play the role of negotiator or
peacekeeper.
 Help bring compromise and unity
to the group by saying:

 “What is the problem?”

 “Can we agree that . . . ?”
 “What do we feel/think?”
 “What things can we agree upon?”
 “Is anyone opposed to . . . ?”
 “What would make you
happy/satisfied?”
 “You both have good points we need
to discuss.”
 “Can we disagree without disliking?”
 “We need to focus on issues, not
personalities.”
 “Can we all live with this
solution/compromise?”

38
Participate wholeheartedly
 By choosing to participate with
enthusiasm, delight, and even
joy, you can spark enthusiasm,
delight, and joy.

 One person’s wholehearted

participation in a group can
encourage and inspire others to
do the same.

39
40