Genetics

3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5

 What is a gene
• A gene is a heritable factor that consists of a length of DNA and
influences specific characteristics.

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Types of Mutation
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 Human Genome Project

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Gene Comparisons Between Different Species
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Plasmids
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Organization of Eukaryotic DNA

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Chromosome

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Gene position in a chromosome - locus
Homologous chromosome

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Diploid and Haploid
• Diploid: Nuclei possessing pairs of homologous chromosomes are diploid
(symbolised by 2n)
• These nuclei will possess two gene copies (alleles) for each trait
• All somatic (body) cells in the organism will be diploid, with new diploid cells created
via mitosis
• Diploid cells are present in most animals and many plants
• Haploid: Nuclei possessing only one set of chromosomes are haploid
(symbolised by n)
• These nuclei will possess a single gene copy (allele) for each trait
• All sex cells (gametes) in the organism will be haploid, and are derived from diploid
cells via meiosis
• Haploid cells are also present in bacteria (asexual) and fungi (except when
reproducing)
Diploid and Haploid

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Autosomes and Heterosomes
• In humans sex is determined by 2 chromosomes called heterosomes.
Women have 2 X (XX) and Men have an X and a Y (XY)
• The Y chromosome contains the genes for developing male sex
characteristics (specifically the SRY gene). In its absence of a Y
chromosome, female sex organs will develop
• The sex chromosomes are homologous in females (XX) but
are not homologous in males (XY)
• The non sex chromosomes are autosomes.
Sex Determination in Humans

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Other Sex Determinations Systems

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 Karyotypes vs. Karyograms
• Karyotypes are the number and types of chromosomes in a
eukaryotic cell – they are determined via a process that involves:
• Harvesting cells (usually from a foetus or white blood cells of adults)
• Chemically inducing cell division, then arresting mitosis while the
chromosomes are condensed
• The stage during which mitosis is halted will determine whether
chromosomes appear with sister chromatids or not
• The chromosomes are stained and photographed to generate a
visual profile that is known as a karyogram
• The chromosomes of an organism are arranged into homologous pairs
according to size (with sex chromosomes shown last)
Karyogram
Karyogram
Karyogram
Karyogram
Gender and number of chromosomes?
Gender and number of chromosomes?
Autoradiography

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 Chromosome Number
• Chromosome number is a characteristic feature of members of a
particular species
• Organisms with different diploid numbers are unlikely to be able to interbreed
(cannot form homologous pairs in zygotes)
• In cases where different species do interbreed, offspring are usually infertile
(cannot form functional gametes)
• For instance, a horse (diploid = 64) and a donkey (diploid = 62) may produce an infertile
mule (non-diploid = 63)

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genetics/32-chromosomes/chromosome-
number.html
• Chromosome number does not provide a valid indication of genetic
complexity, for instance:
• Tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum) have 24 chromosomes and a genome size
of 950 million bp, but possess ~32,000 genes
• Chickens (Gallus gallus) have 78 chromosomes and a genome size of 1.2
billion bp, but possess only ~17,000 genes

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Image taken from: http://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-3-genetics/32-chromosomes/chromosome-number.html
 Genome size
• Genome size can vary greatly between organisms and is not a
valid indicator of genetic complexity
• The largest known genome is possessed by the canopy plant Paris
japonica – 150 billion base pairs
• The smallest known genome is possessed by the
bacterium Carsonella ruddi – 160,000 base pairs
• As a general rule:
• Viruses and bacteria tend to have very small genomes
• Prokaryotes typically have smaller genomes than eukaryotes
• Sizes of plant genomes can vary dramatically due to the capacity for
plant species to self-fertilise and become polyploid
Comparison of Genome Size in Different Organisms

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Variation in Genome Sizes For Different Types of Organisms

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Meiosis
Crossing Over

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Random Assortment

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 Sexual Life Cycle

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Genetic Variation
• The three main sources of genetic variation arising from
sexual reproduction are:
• Crossing over (in prophase I)
• Random assortment of chromosomes (in metaphase I)
• Random fusion of gametes from different parents
Nondisjunction

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Chromosome Abnormalities
• If a zygote is formed from a gamete that has experienced a non-
disjunction event, the resulting offspring will have extra or missing
chromosomes in every cell of their body
• Conditions that arise from non-disjunction events include:
• Patau’s Syndrome (trisomy 13)
• Edwards Syndrome (trisomy 18)
• Down Syndrome (trisomy 21)
• Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY)
• Turner’s Syndrome / Fragile X (monosomy X)
Down Syndrome

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Down Syndrome and Maternal Age

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Down Syndrome and Maternal Age

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Prenatal Testing
Chorionic Villi Sampling
• Chorionic villi sampling involves removing a sample of the chorionic
villus (placental tissue) via a tube inserted through the cervix
• It can be done at ~11 weeks of pregnancy with a slight risk of inducing
miscarriage (~1%)

Amniocentesis
• Amniocentesis involves the extraction of a small amount of amniotic
fluid (contains fetal cells) with a needle
• It is usually conducted later than CVS (~16 weeks of pregnancy) with a
slightly lower risk of miscarriage (~0.5%)
 Prenatal Testing

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 Inheritance
• Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who developed the principles of
inheritance by performing experiments on pea plants
• First, he crossed different varieties of purebred pea plants, then collected and grew the seeds
to determine their characteristics
• Next, he crossed the offspring with each other (self-fertilization) and grew their seeds to
similarly determine their characteristics
• These crosses were performed many times to establish reliable data trends (over
5,000 crosses were performed)
• As a result of these experiments, Mendel discovered the following things:
• When he crossed two different purebred varieties together the results were not a blend –
only one feature would be expressed
• E.g. When purebred tall and short pea plants were crossed, all offspring developed into tall growing
plants
• When Mendel self-fertilised the offspring, the resulting progeny expressed the two different
traits in a ratio of ~ 3:1
• E.g. When the tall growing progeny were crossed, tall and short pea plants were produced in a ratio of
~ 3:1
Inheritance
• From these findings, Mendel drew the following conclusions:
• Organisms have discrete factors that determine its features
(these ‘factors’ are now recognised as genes)
• Furthermore, organisms possess two versions of each factor
(these ‘versions’ are now recognised as alleles)
• Each gamete contains only one version of each factor (sex cells are
now recognised to be haploid)
• Parents contribute equally to the inheritance of offspring as a
result of the fusion between randomly selected egg and sperm
• For each factor, one version is dominant over another and will be
completely expressed if present
Mendel’s Laws
• Law of Segregation: When gametes form, alleles are separated so
that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene
• Law of Independent Assortment: The segregation of alleles for one
gene occurs independently to that of any other gene*
• Principle of Dominance: Recessive alleles will be masked by dominant
alleles†
• * The law of independent assortment does not hold true for genes located on
the same chromosome (i.e. linked genes)
• † Not all genes show a complete dominance hierarchy – some genes show co-
dominance or incomplete dominance
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Haploid Gametes

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 Types of Zygosity

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Modes of Inheritance
• The gene composition (i.e. allele combination) for a specific
trait is referred to as the genotype
• The genotype of a particular gene will typically be either
homozygous or heterozygous
• The observable characteristics of a specific trait (i.e. the
physical expression) is referred to as the phenotype
• The phenotype is determined by both the
genotype and environmental influences
Complete Dominance

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Co-dominance
Blood Types
Blood Types

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Blood Transfusion

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Punnet Grids
• A monohybrid cross determines the allele combinations for potential
offspring for one gene only
• Monohybrid crosses can be calculated according to the following
steps:
• Step 1: Designate letters to represent alleles (dominant = capital
letter; recessive = lower case ; co-dominant = superscript)
• Step 2: Write down the genotype and phenotype of the prospective parents
(this is the P generation)
• Step 3: Write down the genotype of the parental gametes (these will be
haploid and thus consist of a single allele each)
• Step 4: Draw a grid with maternal gametes along the top and paternal
gametes along the left (this is a Punnett grid)
• Step 5: Complete the Punnett grid to determine potential genotypes and
phenotypes of offspring (this is the F1 generation)
Monohybrid Cross
Monohybrid Cross
Monohybrid Cross
Monohybrid Cross
Monohybrid Cross
• The genotypic and phenotypic ratios calculated via Punnett
grids are only probabilities and may not always reflect actual
trends
• E.g. When flipping a coin there is a 50% chance of landing on
heads – this doesn’t mean you will land on heads 50% of the time
• When comparing predicted outcomes to actual data, larger
data sets are more likely to yield positive correlations
• Gregor Mendel performed over 5,000 crosses as part of his pea
plant experiment
• However many statisticians believe Mendel’s results are too close
to the exact ratios predicted to be genuine
Image taken from: http://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-3-genetics/34-inheritance/punnett-grids.html
Genetic Diseases
• Genetic diseases are caused when mutations to a gene (or genes) abrogate
normal cellular function, leading to the development of a disease phenotype
• Genetic diseases can be caused by recessive, dominant or co-dominant alleles
• An autosomal recessive genetic disease will only occur if both alleles are faulty
• Heterozygous individuals will possess one copy of the faulty allele but not develop disease
symptoms (they are carriers)
• An example of an autosomal recessive genetic disease is cystic fibrosis
• An autosomal dominant genetic disease only requires one copy of a faulty allele
to cause the disorder
• Homozygous dominant and heterozygous individuals will both develop the full range of
disease symptoms
• An example of an autosomal dominant genetic disease is Huntington’s disease
• If a genetic disease is caused by co-dominant alleles it will also only require one
copy of the faulty allele to occur
• However, heterozygous individuals will have milder symptoms due to the moderating
influence of a normal allele
• An example of a genetic disease that displays co-dominance is sickle cell anaemia
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Cystic Fibrosis
Huntington's Disease

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Sex Linked Genes
• Sex linkage refers to when a gene controlling a characteristic
is located on a sex chromosome (X or Y)
• The Y chromosome is much shorter than the X chromosome and
contains only a few genes (50 million bp; 78 genes)
• The X chromosome is longer and contains many genes not present
on the Y chromosomes (153 million bp ; ~ 2,000 genes)
• Hence, sex-linked conditions are usually X-linked - as very few
genes exist on the shorter Y chromosome
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• Sex-linked inheritance patterns differ from autosomal patterns due to the
fact that the chromosomes aren’t paired in males (XY)
• This leads to the expression of sex-linked traits being predominantly associated with
a particularly gender
• As human females have two X chromosomes (and therefore two alleles),
they can be either homozygous or heterozygous
• Hence, X-linked dominant traits are more common in females (as either allele may
be dominant and cause disease)
• Human males have only one X chromosome (and therefore only one allele)
and are hemizygous for X-linked traits
• X-linked recessive traits are more common in males, as the condition cannot be
masked by a second allele
• The following trends always hold true for X-linked conditions:
• Only females can be carriers (a heterozygote for a recessive disease condition), males
cannot be heterozygous carriers
• Males will always inherit an X-linked trait from their mother (they inherit a Y
chromosome from their father)
• Females cannot inherit an X-linked recessive condition from an unaffected father
(must receive his dominant allele)
Red-green colour blindness and haemophilia
• Red-green colour blindness and haemophilia are both
examples of X-linked recessive conditions
• Consequently, they are both far more common in males than in
females (males cannot mask the trait as a carrier)
• When assigning alleles for a sex-linked trait, the convention
is to write the allele as a superscript to the sex chromosome
(X)
• Haemophilia: XH = unaffected (normal blood clotting) ; Xh =
affected (haemophilia)
• Colour blindness: XA = unaffected (normal vision) ; Xa = affected
(colour blindness)
• Haemophilia is a genetic disorder whereby the body’s ability to
control blood clotting (and hence stop bleeding) is impaired
• The formation of a blood clot is controlled by a cascade of
coagulation factors whose genes are located on the X chromosome
• When one of these factors becomes defective, fibrin formation is
prevented - meaning bleeding continues for a long time
• Different forms of haemophilia can occur, based on which specific
coagulation factor is mutated (e.g. haemophilia A = factor VIII)
• Red-green colour blindness is a genetic disorder whereby an
individual fails to discriminate between red and green hues
• This condition is caused by a mutation to the red or green retinal
photoreceptors, which are located on the X chromosome
• Red-green colour blindness can be diagnosed using the Ishihara
colour test
Types of Mutagens

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Consequences of radiation after nuclear bombing
of Hiroshima and accident at Chernobyl
• The nuclear bombing of Hiroshima and accident at Chernobyl are two
examples of a catastrophic release of radioactive material
• The nuclear bombing of Hiroshima (and Nagasaki) occurred in August 1945,
during the final stages of World War II
• The Chernobyl accident occurred in April 1986, when an explosion at the
reactor core caused the release of radioactive material
• Of the two incidents, more people died from the nuclear bombing,
but the meltdown released far more radiation (~400×)
• The Chernobyl meltdown involved far more fissionable material and produced
different isotopes with much longer half-lives
• The Hiroshima nuclear bomb was detonated above ground and radiation was
dispersed, resulting in less irradiation of the soil
• Some of the long-term consequences of radiation exposure following these
disasters include:
• An increased incidence in cancer development (with a strong correlation between dose of
radiation and frequency of cancer)
• Reduced T cell counts and altered immune functions, leading to higher rates of infection
• A wide variety of organ-specific health effects (e.g. liver cirrhosis, cataract induction, etc.)
• Some of the consequences of radiation exposure are specific to the incident due
to the types and amounts of radiation released
• Thyroid disease was a common consequence of the Chernobyl accident due to the release of
radioactive iodine
• There was no significant increase in birth defects following the Hiroshima bombing, but an
estimated 250% increase in congenital abnormalities following the Chernobyl meltdown
• Whereas Hiroshima is still habitable and well populated, certain regions of
Chernobyl remain unsafe for human habitation
• There is anecdotal evidence to suggest that radiation levels around Chernobyl have caused
variation to local flora and fauna
• The presence of residual radiation in the environment can become concentrated in organisms
via bioaccumulation
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 Pedigree
• A pedigree is a chart of the
genetic history of a family
over several generations
• Males are represented as
squares, while females are
represented as circles
• Shaded symbols mean an
individual is affected by a
condition, while an unshaded
symbol means they are
unaffected
• A horizontal line between
man and woman represents
mating and resulting children
are shown as offshoots to this
line
• Generations are labeled with
roman numerals and
individuals are numbered
according to age (oldest on
the left)
Role of the Environment
• The phenotype is the observable characteristics or traits of an organism
• It is predominantly determined by the organism’s genotype (allele combination) for
each particular feature
• However environmental factors may also influence the expression of
characteristics
• Hydrangeas change colour depending on the pH of the soil (acidic soil = blue flower ;
alkaline soil = pink flower)
• Human skin colour is determined by the expression of melanin pigment, but levels
can change depending on sun exposure
PCR – Polymerase Chain Reaction
• The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is an artificial method of
replicating DNA under laboratory conditions
• The PCR technique is used to amplify large quantities of a specific sequence
of DNA from an initial minute sample
• Each reaction cycle doubles the amount of DNA – a standard PCR sequence of
30 cycles creates over 1 billion copies (230)
 PCR Stages
• PCR occurs in a thermal cycler and uses variations in
temperature to control the replication process via three steps:
• Denaturation – DNA sample is heated to separate it into two single
strands (~95ºC for 1 min)
• Annealing – DNA primers attach to the 3’ ends of the target sequence
(~55ºC for 1 min)
• Elongation – A heat-tolerant DNA polymerase (Taq) binds to the
primer and copies the strand (~72ºC for 2 min)
• Once large quantities of DNA have been created, other
laboratory techniques are used to isolate and manipulate the
sequences
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D788bamFEs/S8PiS26tT3I/AAAAAAAAALk/hLQTuBzVj4g/s1600/c7_20_7_pcr.jpg
Gel Electrophoresis
• Gel electrophoresis is a laboratory technique used to separate and
isolate proteins or DNA fragments based on mass / size
• Samples are placed in a block of gel and an electric current is applied which
causes the samples to move through the gel
• Smaller samples are less impeded by the gel matrix and hence will move
faster through the gel
• This causes samples of different sizes to separate as they travel at different
speeds
Image taken from: http://bio1151.nicerweb.com/Locked/media/ch20/20_08GelElectrophoresis.jpg
DNA vs. Proteins
• While both DNA and proteins are separated according to the same
basic process, differences exist between the two protocols
• DNA Separation
• DNA may be cut into fragments using restriction endonuclease – different
DNA samples will generate different fragment lengths
• Fragments separate because DNA is negatively charged due to the presence
of a phosphate group (PO43–) on each nucleotide
• DNA samples are placed into an agarose gel and fragment size calculated by
comparing against known industry standards
• Specific sequences can be identified by incorporating a complementary
radiolabelled hybridisation probe, transferring the separated sequences to a
membrane and then visualising via autoradiography (Southern blotting)
DNA vs. Protein
• Protein Separation
• Proteins may be folded into a variety of shapes (affecting size) and have
positive and negative regions (no clear charge)
• Proteins must first be treated with an anionic detergent (SDS) in order to
linearise and impart a uniform negative charge
• Protein samples are placed into a polyacrylamide gel and sizes compared
against known industry standards
• Separated proteins are transferred to a membrane and then target proteins
are identified by staining with specific monoclonal antibodies (Western
blotting)
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Image taken from: http://www.virology.ws/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/western_blot.jpg
DNA Profiling
• DNA profiling is a technique by which individuals can be identified
and compared via their respective DNA profiles
• Within the non-coding regions of an individual’s genome there exists satellite
DNA – long stretches of DNA made up of repeating elements called short
tandem repeats (STRs)
• As individuals will likely have different numbers of repeats at a given satellite
DNA locus, they will generate unique DNA profiles
Image taken from: http://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-3-genetics/35-genetic-modification-and/dna-profiling.html
• DNA profiling is commonly used in criminal investigations (forensics) and to settle
paternity disputes
• The procedure involved is common for both:
• A DNA sample is collected (e.g. from blood, semen, saliva, etc.) and then amplified using PCR
• Satellite DNA (with STR sequences) are cut with specific restriction enzymes to generate
fragments
• Fragment length will differ between individuals due to the variable length of their short tandem
repeats
• The fragments are separated using gel electrophoresis and the resulting profiles are compared
• Forensic Investigations:
• Suspects should be a complete match with the DNA sample taken from the crime scene if a
conviction is to occur
• The number of loci used to generate a unique profile depends on the size of the population
being compared
• E.g. America (population: ~ 320 million) uses 13 loci for comparison; Australia (population: ~ 25
million) uses only 9 loci
• Paternity Testing:
• Children inherit half their chromosomes from each parent and thus should possess
a combination of parental fragments
• In other words, all fragments produced in the child should also be produced by either the
mother or father
Example 1: Forensic Investigation
Compare the DNA collected from the crime scene
to determine which of the three suspects was
present

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Example 2: Paternal Testing
Compare the profiles of three men with that of a
mother and child to determine the biological
father

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cDNA and Microarrays
Gene Transfer
• A gene determines a particular trait by encoding for a specific
polypeptide in a given organism
• Because the genetic code is (almost) universal, an organism can
potentially express a new trait if the appropriate gene is introduced
into its genome
• The transfer of genes between species is called gene modification,
and the new organism created is called a transgenic
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Step 1: Isolating gene and vector
• DNA can be isolated from cells by centrifugation – whereby heavier
components such as nuclei are separated
• The gene of interest can then be specifically amplified via the polymerase
chain reaction (PCR)
• Gene sequences can also be generated from mRNA using reverse
transcriptase – these DNA sequences (cDNA) lack introns
• A vector is a DNA molecule that is used as a vehicle to carry the gene of
interest into a foreign cell
• Bacterial plasmids are commonly used as vectors because they are capable
of autonomous self-replication and expression
• These plasmids may be modified for further functionality (e.g. selection
markers, reporter genes, inducible expression promoters)
• Other types of vectors include modified viruses and artificial chromosomes
Step 2: Digestion with Restriction Enzymes
• In order to incorporate a gene of interest into a vector, both must be
cut with restriction enzymes at specific recognition sites
• Restriction enzymes cleave the sugar-phosphate backbone to
generate blunt ends or sticky ends (complementary overhangs)
• Scientists will often cleave the vector and gene with two
different ‘sticky end’ restriction endonucleases (double digestion) to
ensure the gene is inserted in the correct orientation and to prevent
the vector from re-annealing without the desired insert
Step 3: Ligation of Vector and Insert
• The gene of interest is inserted into a plasmid vector that has been
cut with the same restriction endonucleases
• This occurs because the sticky ends of the gene and vector overlap via
complementary base pairing
• The gene and vector are then spliced together by the enzyme DNA
ligase to form a recombinant construct
• DNA ligase joins the vector and gene by fusing their sugar-phosphate
backbones together with a covalent phosphodiester bond
Step 4: Selection and Expression
• The recombinant construct (including the gene of interest) is finally
introduced into an appropriate host cell or organism
• This process can be achieved in a variety of ways and is called
transfection (for eukaryotes) or transformation (for prokaryotes)
• Antibiotic selection is commonly used in order to identify which cells
have successfully incorporated the recombinant construct
• The plasmid vector contains an antibiotic resistance gene, so only
transgenic cells will grow in the presence of antibiotic
• Transgenic cells, once isolated and purified, will hopefully begin
expressing the desired trait encoded by the gene of interest
Vector Delivery
• In molecular biology, a vector is a vehicle that is used to deliver genetic
material to a target cell via horizontal gene transfer
• There are several methods for transferring genetic material, but all
mechanisms can be classed as either viral or non-viral
Non-Viral Delivery
• A commonly used vector is a plasmid – a circular DNA molecule capable of
self-replication and autonomous protein expression
• Plasmids can be introduced to target cells by a variety of means, including:
• Electroporation – An electric current is applied to make temporary holes in the cell
membrane
• Heat shocking – Thermal energy is used to briefly destabilise the cell membrane to
allow for vector entry
• Particle bombardment – DNA-coated particles are shot into the cells by a gene gun
• Microinjection – A glass micropipette is used to inject the vector directly into the cell
• Lipofection – The vector is transferred within a liposome (a vesicle capable of fusion
with the cell membrane)
Viral Delivery
• The insertion of a viral vector into a cell is
called transduction and utilise the ability
of a virus to inject its DNA into a host cell
• Viruses integrate their DNA directly into
the host genome, which can have both
beneficial and detrimental consequences
• The advantage of this practice is that protein
synthesis will be driven by endogenous
expression patterns
• A disadvantage of this practice is that there is
a risk the random insertion into the genome
will abrogate key host genes
• Viruses can have either a DNA genome
(adenovirus) or an RNA genome
(retrovirus)
• Retroviruses use an enzyme called reverse
transcriptase to convert the RNA sequence
into a DNA copy prior to integration
Gene Therapy
Gene Silencing
• Gene silencing refers to the ability of a cell to prevent the expression
of a particular gene
• While this occurs naturally, it can also be induced by scientists to study gene
interactions and potentially treat inherited diseases
Conditional Knockout
RNA interference (RNAi)
GMOs
• Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are used in
agriculture to improve crop yields and reduce farming costs
• However the use of GM crops is a contentious issue, as
economic benefits must be weighed against environmental
risks
• GM Crops and Human Health
• GM crops can be used to improve human nutritional standards, by
incorporating genes for certain proteins, vitamin or vaccines
• Additionally, GM crops can be manufactured that lack common
natural allergens or toxins
• However, the inclusion or removal of certain genes could trigger
unexpected adverse health reactions in some individuals
• Currently, not all foods with GM components are labelled, making
informed decisions of use difficult for consumers
• GM Crops and Economic Consequences
• GM crops can include genes to enable them to grow in a wider range of
environments (e.g. drought / frost / salinity resistance)
• GM crops can be manufactured to produce greater yields (crops can
potentially grow larger and faster)
• GM crops can include genes which slow the rate of spoiling, leading to longer
shelf lives for GM foods
• GM crops may possess resistance to certain viruses or produce toxins to pests
(reducing need for the use of pesticides)
• Herbicide resistant crops can be used to allow for the easier killing of weeds
(which compete with crops for soil nutrients)
• Overall, an improved yield, reduction in farming costs and ability to farm
more land will provide an economic benefit to farmers
• However, patent protection allows biotech companies to restrict the use of
seeds and force farmers to pay high prices for use and grasses
• GM crops with pest toxins could also accelerate the evolution of resistant pest
species
• GM Crops and Environmental Issues
• The ability to farm a wider range of environments with GM crops
will potentially reduce the need for associated deforestation
• Also, the generation of pest-resistant crops means that less
chemical insecticides will be released into the environment
• However, GM crops could potentially reduce biodiversity in a
region by competing with indigenous plant life
• Furthermore, proteins or toxins produced by GM crops could
negatively affect certain organisms within the ecosystem
• Cross-pollination by GM crops could also result in the formation of
herbicide-resistant weeds
Monarch butterfly and Bt Corn
Clones
• Clones are groups of genetically identical organisms or a group of cells
derived from a single original parent cell
• Organisms that reproduce asexually will produce genetically identical clones
• Additionally, mechanisms exist whereby sexually reproducing organisms can
produce clones (e.g. identical twins)
• Cloning multicellular organisms requires the production of stem cells
(differentiated cells cannot form other cell types)
• Stem cells can be artificially generated from adult tissue using a process called
somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)
Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer
Natural Cloning
• Many species can reproduce asexually and hence possess natural
methods of cloning
• All bacteria, the majority of fungi and many species of protists
reproduce asexually to produce genetic clones
• While most plants reproduce sexually, they also possess methods of
asexual reproduction (vegetative propagation)
• Certain animal species can also reproduce asexually, via a variety of
different mechanisms
Animal Cloning Methods
Plant Cloning Methods
Human Cloning Methods
Artificial Cloning
 Stem Cutting
• A stem cutting is a separated portion of plant stem that can regrow into a new independent
clone via vegetative propagation
• All stems possess nodes, from which a leaf, branch or aerial root may grow – the region between nodes are
called internodes
• Stem cuttings are typically placed in soil with the lower nodes covered and the upper nodes exposed
• Stem cutting is a common method employed to rapidly propagate plant species (including sugar cane, grapes
and roses)
• There are a variety of factors that will influence successful rooting of a stem cutting, including:
• Cutting position (whether cutting occurs above or below a node, as well as the relative proximity of the cut to
the node)
• Length of cutting (including how many nodes remain on the cutting)
• Growth medium (whether left in soil, water, potting mix, compost or open air)
• The use and concentration of growth hormones (e.g. IAA, IBA and NAA promote the formation of
adventitious roots)
• Temperature conditions (most cuttings grow optimally at temperatures common to spring and summer)
• Availability of water (either in the form of ground water or humidity)
• Other environmental conditions (including pH of the soil and light exposure)