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1
w w6
4, w 1, w 2 w1
w 7, w 8 w 1, w 7 1 2
4 Star 2 w4
T
w 3, w 5
T coupler
w 3, w 4 w 2 w7 w 3
w6
T
w 5, w 6 w 2, w 8 3 4
w5
3
w8
Physical Topology: 2 X 2 star Logical Topology: 2 X 2 torus
Physical and Logical topologies
• Node 1 can directly send information to node 2 and node 3 using
frequencies and w1 and w2,
• where as if node 1 wants to send message to node 4, it has to
multi-hop through either node 2 or node 3.
• For this reason, node 1 is directly logically connected to node 2
and node 3.
• Although, node 1 is not directly physically connected to node 2
and node 3.
• Node 1 is not directly logically connected to node 4.
• If node 1 node 1 communicates with node 4 via node 2, there will
be a wavelength conversion from w1 to w3 at node 2.
Communication Networks
Network topologies:
Hub
End node
Hub
Problems:
C 3 The connecting wire, cable,
C5
or optical fiber forms a closed
loop. Data are passed along the
C4
ring from one computer to
another.
Ring Network
• Ring network consists of nodes that are joined by point-to-point
connection to form a closed loop or ring.
• The transmitted signal is regenerated at each node.
• It is a shared-access network and it has the capability of
broadcasting messages.
• It needs some form of access control to determine which node
will transmit when.
Advantages
• The most important advantage of this network is its point-to-
point connections.
• The electronics and maintenance of point-to-point links are
much simpler than multi cast links.
Ring Network
• The structure of this network is very simple and it is very easy to
insert and delete any number of nodes.
• For this reason, ring network is easily scalable and highly
modular.
• Fault isolation and recovery are much simpler than tree.
Disadvantages:
• The disadvantage is it offers only two alternate routes and
thereby it can manage only a single fault.
• Another important drawback of ring network is its large
diameter.
• If diameter of a network is high, the number of edges involved
in each communication will also be very high resulting in high
signal attenuation and network blocking probability.
A star network topology
Use: This topology is
C1
useful for applications
where processing must
C6 C2 be centralized and some
can be performed locally.
Host
CPU
Problems:
C3 All communication pass
C5
through the central computer.
The communications in the
C4
network will stop if the host
computer stops functioning.
Star Network
• In star network, each station is connected via a point-to-point link
to a central point.
• This central point is called hub, multi port repeater, or
concentrator.
• The central point may be “passive”, “active”, or “intelligent”.
• A passive hub simply connects the arms of a star, no signal
regeneration is performed.
• An active hub is like a passive hub, except that it regenerates
signals.
• Intelligent hubs not only regenerate signals but also perform
activities such as intelligent path selection and network
management.
Star Network
Advantage:
The main advantage of the star architecture over the bus is
its small excess loss, since in case of n-user star the excess
loss increases logarithmically with n, while in case of n-
user bus it increases linearly with n.
Disadvantage:
Since all information in a star network goes through a
central point, stars are easy to troubleshoot.
Complex Networks: De Bruijn graphs
000
001 100
no. of nodes
010 =2^3=8
Advantages: diameter
101 = max hop no. = 3
011 110
111
Complex Networks:ShuffleNet
0 4 0
1 5 1
2 6 2
3 7 3
A ( 2, 2 ) Shuffle Net.
Complex Networks: Manhattan Street
Network
000 001
110 111
100 101
• How to manage?
Thus fault can be managed by routing the traffic to a spare channel
on the same physical link and bypassing the faulty channel.
Link fault
• Why and when it occurs?
A link fault occurs due to fiber cut or due to noise
(particularly those running over long distance).
• How to manage?
It can be managed by using a bundle of protection fibers in
addition to the working fiber. The performance or survivability
is limited by the number of links in each bundle.
Another way of solving this problem is by providing a
“loopback” mechanism within each node on the same
working fiber.
Node fault
• Why and when it occurs?
A node fault occurs due to power outages or catastrophic failure
in an entire WADM node failure.
• How to handle?
It is complicated to handle since when this fault occurs, a part of
the conversion capability of the network as a whole is lost and
leaves an open circuit and can result in deadlock of all routing
networks.
One solution is to introduce redundancy in the internal
connections of the networks rather than in the connections of
the nodes. In case of multiple failures, the solution is a “firewall”
that can prevent deadlock spreading in the network. This can be
achieved by a simple device that tomes out if a packet passing
through it stay longer than a specified time.
Survivable route graph
G
G
A
F A
F
B
E B
C E
C
D
D
A Network. Survival route graph.