Chapter 2

Fluid Static - Pressure

 PRESSURE
 Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit
area.
 Units of pressure are N/m2, which is called a pascal (Pa).
 Since the unit Pa is too small for pressures encountered in practice,
kilopascal (1 kPa = 103 Pa) and megapascal (1 MPa = 106 Pa) are
commonly used.
 1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar
 Other units include kgf/cm2, lbf/in2=psi.
 1 kgf/cm2 = 9.807 N/cm2 = 14.223 psi

Sphygmometer A few pictures of Pressure applications

Compressor

Clinical mercury Spray Gun

Manometer
REFERENCE PRESSURE
 ATMOSPHERIC, Patm
 GAGE (Vacuum when, Pgage is –ve)
 ABSOLUTE

Pabs = Patm -
Pvac
Pabs= Pgage + Patm
Pgage (+ve)

Patm
Pabs

Pvacuum =
Pgage (-ve)

Pabs

Perfect Vacuum, Pabs = 0 atm

 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
 Atmospheric pressure is
the pressure at any point
in the Earth's atmosphere.
In most circumstances
atmospheric pressure is
closely approximated by
the hydrostatic pressure
caused by the weight of
air above the
measurement point.
Source: en. Wikipedia.com.
 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
How does it change?
Changes not only with elevation but also with weather condition
Also known as “ Barometric Pressure”

Pabs = Patm - Pvac

Pabs= Pgage + Patm

Pgage
(+ve)
Patm
Density and
Pabs Temperature
Pvacuum = Pgage (-ve)
If the air mass is dense,
the pressure is higher.
Warm air is not as dense
as cool air. That is the
Pabs reason why warm air goes
Perfect Vacuum, Pabs = 0 atm
up and cool air does not.
Altitude and temperature
interact, and so they affect
air pressure.
 ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
 Pressure measured relative to perfect vacuum is
called ABSOLUTE PRESSURE, Pa(abs) or psi.
A perfect vacuum is the lowest possible pressure.
Absolute pressure (always +ve.)

Pabs = Patm - Pvac

Pabs= Pgage + Patm

Pgage
(+ve)

Pat
m Pabs
Pvacuum = A perfect vacuum is defined as
Pgage (-ve)
a region in space without any
particles. It cannot be achieved
in a laboratory.
Pabs
Perfect Vacuum, Pabs = 0 atm
 GAGE PRESSURE
Pressure measured relative to atmospheric pressure, Pa (gage) or
psi.
Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero in the
atmosphere, and gage pressure, Pgage=Pabs - Patm.

Pabs = Patm - Pvac

Pabs= Pgage + Patm

Pgage
(+ve)

Pat
m Pabs
Pvacuum =
Pgage (-ve)

Pabs
Perfect Vacuum, Pabs = 0 atm
 GAGE PRESSURE
 A gage pressure above atmospheric pressure
(relative to atmospheric) is +ve.
 A gage pressure below atmospheric pressure
(relative to atmospheric) is –ve. It is also called
vacuum pressure

Pabs = Patm - Pvac

Pabs= Pgage + Patm

Pgage
(+ve)

Pat
m Pabs
Pvacuum =
Pgage (-ve)

Pabs
Perfect Vacuum, Pabs = 0 atm
 EXAMPLE

Express a pressure of 155 kPa (gage) as an

absolute pressure. The local atmospheric
pressure is 98 kPa (atm).

ANSWER
Absolute Pressure= Gage Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure
= 155 kPa + 98 kPa
= 253 kPa
 PRESSURE AT A POINT
Pressure: Compressive force per unit area, and it gives
the impression of being a vector
Pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all directions.
It has Magnitude, but not a specific direction, and thus it is a
scalar quantity.
Other words, Pressure at any point in fluid has the same
magnitude in all directions.

P P

P P

P
Variation of Pressure with Depth
The pressure of a fluid at rest
increases with depth (as a
result of added weight).
 In the presence of a gravitational field,
pressure increases with depth
because more fluid rests on deeper
layers.
 To obtain a relation for the variation of
pressure with depth, consider
rectangular element of height Dz,
length Dx, and unit depth (Dy = 1
unit into the page) in equilibrium.
 Force balance in z-direction gives
F z  maz  0
P2 DxDy  P1DxDy  gDxDzDy  0
Where W = mg = gDxDzDy is the weight of the fluid element and
Δz = z2 – z1 .Dividing by Δy Δx and rearranging gives

In constant density and

DP  P2  P1  gDz   s Dz constant gravitational
acceleration

Free-body diagram of a rectangular

fluid element in equilibrium.
The pressure in a tank containing a gas, can be considered to be
uniform since the weight of the gas is too small to make a significant.
The pressure in a room filled with air can be assumed to be constant

In a room filled with

a gas, the variation
of pressure with
height is negligible.

Take point 1 to be at the free surface of a liquid open to the atmosphere,

where the pressure is the atmospheric pressure Patm , then the pressure at a
depth h from the free surface becomes
 Pressure in a liquid
at rest increases
linearly with
distance from the
free surface.

When the variation of density with elevation is known

 Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape of the container.
 Pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid.
 The pressure at points A, B, C, D, E, F, and G are the same since
- same depth
- same static fluid
 Pressure at points H and I are not the same since these two points cannot
be interconnected by the same fluid.
 EXAMPLE
Calculate the change in water pressure from
the surface (exposed to atmosphere) to a
depth of 5 m.
ANSWER
If the surface of the water is exposed to the atmosphere, the
pressure there is 0 Pa(gage). Descending in the water
(decreasing elevation) produces an increase in pressure.
Therefore, at 5 m the pressure is 49.05 kPa(abs).

P = ρgh = (1000kg/m3)(9.81m/s2)(5m) Pa.

*GAS PRESSURE VARIATION WITH ELEVATION
Air density at sea level, 15 degree Celcius is 1.225 kg/m3.
Pressure difference at 5m height difference;
ρgh = (1.225 kg/m3) * 9.807 ms-2 * 5m * (1 N/1 kgms-2) * ( 1 kPa/ 1000 N/m2)
= 0.06 kPa
1 atm = 101.325 kPa
For gas, the variation of pressure with height is negligible, because of their low density.
Also, weight is too small.
However is accuracy is desired, it becomes significant.

Gravitational Effect
g = 9.807 m/s2 at sea level, at elevation 14,000 m above sea level, g = 9.764 m/s2, which is
0.4% change. Therefore, g variation is so small and g can be considered constant.
 EXAMPLE
Figure below shows a tank of oil with one side open to
the atmosphere and the other side sealed with air above
the oil. The oil has a specific gravity of 0.90. Calculate
the gage pressure at points A, B, C, D, E, and F and the
air pressure in the right side of the tank.
Point A At this point, the oil is exposed to the
atmosphere, and therefore

Point B The change in elevation between point A and

point B is 3.0 m, with B lower than A. The specific weight
of the oil:

Then we have
Now, the pressure at B is

Point C The change in elevation from point A to point C

is 6.0 m, with C lower than A. Then, the pressure at point
C is

Point D Because point D is at the same level as point B,

the pressure is the same. That is, we have
Point E Because point E is at the same level as point A,
the pressure is the same. That is, we have

Point F The change in elevation between point A and

point F is 1.5 m, with F higher than A. Then, the pressure
at F is
Air Pressure in the right side of the tank is exposed to
the surface of the oil, where pF = -13.2kPa the air
pressure is also -13.2kPa or 13.2 kPa below
atmospheric pressure.
PASCAL’S LAW
 Pascal’s Law : “A pressure
applied to a confined fluid
increases the pressure
throughout by the same
amount”.
 In picture, pistons are at same
height:
F1 F2 F2 A2
P1  P2    
A1 A2 F1 A1
Consider a “pierced”
vessel full of water and
Lifting of a large weight by provided of a piston: a
a small force by the force acts on the piston
application of Pascal’s law. and if the force
increases, the water
comes out of the vessel
with bigger intensity. So
the rise in pressure is
the same anywhere in
water
 Hydraulic Brake System

Jack System

Hydraulic grease gun

 EXAMPLE 3
A force, F of 800 N is applied to the smaller cylinder of a hydraulic jack.
The area, a of a small piston is 20 cm2 while the area, A of a larger piston
is 200 cm2. What mass can be lifted on the larger piston?

F = 800 N

p1 p2

Area,
A = 200 cm2
Putting F = 800 N, a = 20/1000 m2 , A = 200 / 1000 m2
p1  p2
F w

a A
So that
A
W F
a
2.0
 800 
0 .2
 8000 N

W
Mass lifted 
g
80000

9.81
 815.49kg
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
1)Barometers
 Atmospheric pressure is
measured by a device called a
barometer; thus, atmospheric
pressure is often referred to as
the barometric pressure.
 PC can be taken to be zero
since there is only Hg vapor
above point C, and it is very
low relative to Patm.
 Change in atmospheric
pressure due to elevation has
many effects: Cooking, nose
PC   gh  Patm bleeds, engine performance,
aircraft performance.
Patm   gh
 2)Manometer
 A standard technique for measuring pressure involves the use
of liquid column in vertical or inclined tubes.
 Pressure measuring devices based on this technique are called
manometers. The mercury barometer is an example of one
type of manometer, but there are many other configuration
possible, depending on the particular application.
 Piezometer Tube.

 U-Tube manometer. -Simple U-Tube Manometer

-Differential U-Tube Manometer

-Inverted Differential U-Tube
Manometer
 Inclined U-Tube manometer.
Piezometer Tube
The fundamental equation is
P  P0   1h1 >> PA   1h1
PA : gage pressure ( P0=0)
 1:the specific weight of the liquid in the
container
h1: measured from the meniscus at the upper
surface to point(1)
Only suitable if the pressure in the container is
greater than atmospheric pressure, and the
pressure to be measured must be relatively small so
the required height of the column is reasonable. The
fluid in the container must be a liquid rather than
a gas.
Simple U-Tube Manometer
A simple manometer is a tube bent in U-shape. One end of which is
attached to the gauge point and the other is open to the atmosphere as
shown in figure below.

The liquid used in the bent tube or simple manometer is generally mercury which is
13.6 times heavier than water. Hence, it is also suitable for measuring high
pressure.
A(1)(2)(3)Open
PA + ρ1gh1 – ρ2g h2 = 0
>> PA = ρ2gh2 –ρ1gh1
If pipe A contains a gas
then ρ1gh1≒0
>> PA =ρ2gh2
Gas: Low density, weight is so small to give significance pressure increase.
 Digital Manometer

A volunteer for the RAF

blowing into a 'U-tube
manometer' to check his
lung power.
 EXAMPLE
A U-tube manometer that shown above is used to measure the
gauge pressure of water (mass density ρ = 1000 kg /m3). If the
density of mercury is 13.6 × 103 kg /m3, what will be the gauge
pressure at A if h1 = 0.45 m and D is 0.7 m above BC.
 ANSWER
 Q  13.6  103 kg / m3
P  1.0  103 kg / m3
h1  0.45 m
h2  0.7 m

Since
p A   P gh1   Q gh2

p A   Q gh2   P gh1
 13.6  10 3  9.81  0.7  1.0  10 3  9.81  0.45

 88976.7 N / m 2
 88.97  103 N / m 2
Differential U-Tube Manometer
It is a device used for measuring the difference of pressures, between
two points in a pipe, or in two different pipes.

A differential manometer consists of a U-tube, containing a heavy liquid

with two ends connected to two different points

A(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)B
PA＋ρ1gh1－ρ2gh2 －ρ3gh3＝ PB
The pressure difference is
PA－ PB＝ρ2gh2＋ρ3gh3－ρ1gh1
 EXAMPLE
A U tube manometer measures the pressure difference between two points
A and B in a liquid. The U tube contains mercury. Calculate the difference
in pressure if h =1.5 m, h2 = 0.75 m and h1 = 0.5 m. The liquid at A and B is
water ( γ = 9.81 × 103 N/m2) and the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6.
Pressure difference

 h2   h1  s h1   h

  h2   h  s h1   h1

  h2  h   h1 s 1

 9.81 10 3 0.75  1.5  9.81 10 3 0.513.6  1

 54445.5 N / m 2

 54.44 kN / m 2
Inverted Differential U-Tube Manometer
An inverted differential manometer is used for measuring the difference
of low pressure, where accuracy is the prime consideration. It consists of
an inverted U-tube, containing a light liquid.
Inclined-Tube Manometer
To measure small pressure change, an inclined-tube
manometer is frequently used:
PA +γ1h1 –γ2l2sinθ –γ3h3 = PB
PA – PB =γ2l2sinθ +γ3h3 –γ1h1
If pipe A and B contain a gas then γ3h3≒γ1h1≒0
*MULTIFLUID MANOMETER EXAMPLE

* For same fluid (constant

density) pressure does
not vary in the
horizontal direction.
Pressure vary in C
vertical direction.
 PA = PB B A
 PA = Patm + ρmgh3

 PB=PC + ρoilgh2

 PC=Pair + ρwatergh1
P1+ ρgh1+ ρ1 gh2 - ρ2 gh3 = P2