Ceramic

– The word ‘ceramic’ is originated from Greek word keromikos,

which means ‘burntstuff’ .
– Ceramics are Inorganic compounds which contain metallic and
non-metallic elements having ionic/covalent inter-atomic
bonding. They are generally formed at high temperatures.
• Important examples:
• Silica - silicon dioxide (SiO2), the main ingredient in most glass
products
• Alumina - aluminum oxide (Al2O3), used in various applications
from abrasives to artificial bones
• More complex compounds such as hydrous aluminum silicate
(Al2Si2O5(OH)4), the main ingredient in most clay products
 Characteristics of ceramics are:
• High temperature stability
• high hardness
• brittleness
• high mechanical strength
• low elongation under application of stress
• low thermal and electrical conductivities
 Classification –Ceramics
• Ceramics are classified in many ways. It is due to
divergence in composition, properties and
applications.
• Based on their composition, ceramics are:
• Oxides
• Carbides
• Nitrides
• Sulfides
• Fluorides etc.
• Based on their specifion applications, ceramics
are classifiedas:
• Glasses
• Clay products
• Refractories
• Abrasives
• Cements
• Advanced ceramics for special applications
• Based on their engineering applications,
ceramics are classified in to two groups as:
traditional and engineering ceramics.
• Traditional ceramics–most made-up of clay,
silica and feldspar
• Engineering ceramics–these consist of highly
purified aluminum oxide (Al2O3),silicon
carbide(SiC) and silicon nitiride (Si3N4)
 Factors that Determine Crystal Structure
1. Relative sizes of ions – Formation of stable structures:
--maximize the # of oppositely charged ion neighbors.

- - - - - -
+ + +
Adapted from Fig. 12.1,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
- - - - - -
unstable stable stable
2. Maintenance of
Charge Neutrality : F-
--Net charge in ceramic Ca 2+
CaF 2 : cation + anions
should be zero.
--Reflected in chemical F-
formula:
A mXp
m, p values to achieve charge neutrality
7
Coordination # and Ionic Radii
r
cation
• Coordination number increases with r anion

To form a stable structure, how many anions can

surround around a cation?
r cation Coordination ZnS
r anion number (zinc blende)
Adapted from Fig. 12.4,
< 0.155 2 linear Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

0.155 - 0.225 3 triangular NaCl

(sodium
0.225 - 0.414 4 tetrahedral chloride)
Adapted from Fig. 12.2,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

0.414 - 0.732 6 octahedral CsCl

(cesium
chloride)
0.732 - 1.0 8 cubic Adapted from Fig. 12.3,
Adapted from Table 12.2, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
8
 Example Problem: Predicting the Crystal Structure of FeO
• On the basis of ionic radii, what crystal structure
would you predict for FeO?

Cation Ionic radius (nm) • Answer:

Al 3+ 0.053 rcation 0.077
Fe 2 + 0.077

ranion 0.140
Fe 3+ 0.069
 0.550
Ca 2+ 0.100
based on this ratio,
Anion -- coordination number
= 6 because
O 2- 0.140
0.414 < 0.550 < 0.732
Cl - 0.181
-- crystal structure is NaCl
F-
Data from Table 12.3,
0.133 Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
10
table_12_03
 Material Preparation
• Raw ceramic material usually occurs in nature as rocky lumps
and the starting material for these products is powder
– The first step is to reduce the rocky lumps to powder, this
is done with the help of rock crusher and ball mills.
• Traditional ceramics are made from minerals occurring in
nature i.e. clay, silica (flint) and feldspar.
– Products: pottery, porcelain, bricks, and cement
• New ceramics are made from synthetically produced raw
materials, i.e. Alumina (Al2O3), Carbon Boron Nitride (CBN),
Titanium Carbide (TiC), Tungsten Carbide (WC)
– Products: cutting tools, artificial bones, nuclear fuels,
substrates for electronic circuits
 Shaping Processes
• Slip casting
– The clay-water mixture is a slurry
• Plastic forming methods
– The clay is plastic
• Semi-dry pressing
– The clay is moist but has low plasticity
• Dry pressing
– The clay is basically dry (less than 5% water) and has no
plasticity
Effect of Water Content in
Shaping Processes
 Slip Casting
Suspension of ceramic powders in water, called a
slip, is poured into porous plaster of paris mold
• Water from the mix is absorbed into the plaster
to form a firm layer of clay at the mold surface
• Slip composition is 25% to 40% water
• Two principal variations:
– Drain casting - mold is inverted to drain excess slip after
semi-solid layer has formed
– Solid casting - adequate time is allowed for entire body to
become firm
 Drain Casting

(1) Slip is poured into mold cavity,

(2) water is absorbed into plaster mold to form a
firm layer,
(3) excess slip is poured out, and
(4) part is removed from mold
 Overview of Plastic Forming
• Starting mixture must have a plastic
consistency
– Composition 15% to 25% water
• Variety of manual and mechanized methods
– Manual methods use clay with more water because it is
more easily formed
– Mechanized methods generally use clay with less water
so starting clay is stiffer
 Plastic Forming Methods
• Hand modeling (manual method)
• Jiggering (mechanized method)
• Plastic pressing (mechanized method)
• Extrusion (mechanized method)
 Hand Modeling
Fabrication of ceramic product by manipulating
plastic clay into desired geometry
• Hand molding - a mold or form is used to define
portions of the part geometry
• Hand throwing on a potter's wheel
– Potter's wheel - a round table that rotates on a
vertical spindle
– Products of circular cross section can be formed by
throwing and shaping the clay, sometimes using a
mold to provide the internal shape
 Jiggering
• (1) Wet clay slug is placed on a convex mold;
• (2) batting; and
• (3) a jigger tool imparts the final product
shape
 Plastic Pressing
Forming process in which plastic clay slug is pressed
between upper and lower molds
• Molds are made of porous material, so when a
vacuum is drawn on the backs of the mold halves,
moisture is removed from the clay
• Mold sections are then opened, using positive air
pressure to prevent sticking of part in the mold
• Advantages: higher production rate than jiggering
and not limited to radially symmetric parts
 Extrusion

Compression of clay through die orifice to produce

long sections of uniform cross section, which are
then cut to required piece length
• Equipment utilizes a screw-type action to assist
in mixing the clay and pushing it through die
opening
• Products: hollow bricks, shaped tiles, drain
pipes, tubes, and insulators
• Also used to make starting slugs for jiggering and
plastic pressing
 Semi-dry Pressing
• (1) Moist
powder
deposited in die
cavity,
• (2) press using
high pressure,
and
• (3) die sections
opened and
part ejection
 Dry Pressing
• Process sequence similar to semi-dry pressing
– Except water content of starting mix is < 5%
• Dies made of hardened tool steel or cemented
carbide to reduce wear due to abrasive dry clay
• No drying shrinkage occurs
– Drying time is eliminated and good accuracy is achieved in
final product
• Products: bathroom tile, electrical insulators,
refractory brick, and other simple geometries
 Clay Volume vs. Water Content

• Water plays an important role in most of the

traditional ceramics shaping processes
– Thereafter, it has no purpose and must be
removed from the clay piece before firing
• Shrinkage is a problem during drying because
water contributes volume to the piece, and
the volume is reduced when it is removed
 Drying
Drying process occurs in two stages
• Stage 1 - drying rate is rapid as water evaporates
from surface into surrounding air and water
from the interior migrates by capillary action to
the surface to replace it
– This is when volumetric shrinkage occurs, with the risk of
warping and cracking
• Stage 2 - moisture content has been reduced to
where the ceramic grains are in contact
– Little or no further volumetric shrinkage
 Drying Rate and Volume
Reduction

• Typical drying rate

curve and associated
volume reduction for
a ceramic body
• Drying rate in second
stage is depicted as a
straight line
– It is sometimes
concave or convex
 Firing of Ceramics
Heat treatment process to sinter the ceramic
material
• Performed in a furnace called a kiln
• Bonds are developed between ceramic grains
– This is accompanied by densification and reduction of
porosity
• Therefore, additional shrinkage occurs in the polycrystalline
material in addition to that which has already occurred in
drying
• In firing of traditional ceramics, a glassy phase
forms among the crystals that acts as a binder
 Glazing
• Raw materials of ceramic glazes generally include silica,
which will be the main glass former. Various metal oxides,
such as sodium, potassium and calcium, act as a flux to
lower the melting temperature. Alumina, often derived
from clay, stiffens the molten glaze to prevent it from
running off the piece.
• Colorants, such as iron oxide, copper carbonate or cobalt
carbonate, and sometimes
• opacifiers such as tin oxide or zirconium oxide, are used to
modify the visual appearance of the fired glaze.
 Processing Overview for
Traditional Ceramics
• Condition of powders and part during
(1) preparation of raw materials,
(2) shaping,
(3) drying, and
(4) firing
 Ceramic
– Inorganic compounds
– contain metallic and non-metallic elements
– inter-atomic bonding is ionic/covalent
– generally formed at high temperatures.
Glass
• An inorganic product of fusion (fused silica) that has
cooled to a rigid condition without crystallization
• An amorphous solid.
• Lacking detectable crystallinity
• only short-range atomic order
• glassy or vitreous
Crystal versus Glassy Ceramics
– Crystalline ceramics have long-range order, with
components composed of many individually
oriented grains.

– Glassy materials possess short-range order, and

generally do not form individual grains.
 Amorphous Ceramics
(Glasses)
• Main ingredient is Silica (SiO2)
• If cooled very slowly will form crystalline structure.
• If cooled more quickly will form amorphous structure
consisting of disordered and linked chains of Silicon and
Oxygen atoms.
• This accounts for its transparency as it is the crystal
boundaries that scatter the light, causing reflection.
• Glass can be tempered to increase its toughness and
resistance to cracking.
 Glass Types
Three common types of glass:
• Soda-lime glass - 95% of all glass, windows
containers etc.
• Lead glass - contains lead oxide to improve
refractive index
• Borosilicate - contains Boron oxide, known as
Pyrex.
 Glasses
• Flat glass (windows)
• Container glass (bottles)
• Pressed and blown glass (dinnerware)
• Glass fibres (home insulation)
• Advanced/specialty glass (optical fibres)