w




 




 


2


 




 

   

 w

@ Today, the Greek term carcinoma is the medical term for
a malignant tumor derived from epithelial cells. It is
Celsus who translated 
 into the Latin  
,

,
also meaning crab. Galen used "
""" to describe 
tumours, the root for the modern word oncology
@ wippocrates described several kinds of cancers. we
called benign tumours 
,, Greek for swelling, and

, Greek for crab or crayfish
malignant tumours 
, crayfish..
This name comes from the appearance of the cut
surface of a solid malignant tumour, with "the veins
stretched on all sides as the animal the crab has its feet,
whence it derives its name´. we later added the suffix 
 , Greek for swelling, giving the name 
 .
@ The genetic basis of cancer was
recognised in 1902 by the German
zoologist Theodor Boveri
@ When Marie Curie and Pierre Curie
discovered radiation at the end of
the 19th century, they stumbled
upon the first effective non-
non-surgical
cancer treatment.
@ The Japanese medical community
observed that the bone marrow of
victims of the atomic bombings of
wiroshima and Nagasaki was
completely destroyed. They
concluded that diseased bone
marrow could also be destroyed with
radiation, and this led to the
discovery of bone marrow
transplants for leukemia
leukemia.. Since
World War II, trends in cancer
treatment are to improve on a micro-
micro-
level the existing treatment methods,
standardize them, and globalize
them to find cures through
epidemiology and international
partnerships.

 



@ Cancer is ultimately the result of
cells that uncontrollably grow
and do not die. Normal cells in
the body follow an orderly path of
growth, division, and death.
Programmed cell death is called
apoptosis, and when this
process breaks down, cancer
begins to form. Unlike regular
cells, cancer cells do not
experience programmatic death
and instead continue to grow and
divide. This leads to a mass of
abnormal cells that grows out of
control.
2






@ Chemical: the chemical that
characterize cancer is call
CARCINOGENE (tobacco,
asbestos, arsenic, radiation such as
gamma and x- x-rays, the sun, and
compounds in car exhaust fumes
are all examples of carcinogens) .
Cancer pathogenesis is traceable
back to DNA mutations that impact
cell growth and metastasis.
@ ©

 

 
 


 













 
  
    
  

 



 


 
 




 And Non- Non-
ionizing radio frequency radiation
from mobile phones and other
similar RF sources has also been
proposed as a cause of cancer, but
there is currently little established
evidence of such a link.
@ Infection: come from virus, eg.
researchers have noted a

,
connection between bacteria and
certain cancers.
cancers. The most
prominent example is the link
between chronic infection of the
wall of the stomach with
w
@ weredity: Most forms of cancer
are 
, meaning that there
is no inherited cause of the
cancer. There are, however, a
number of recognised
syndromes



 and gastric
cancer.. Although only a minority of
cancer
those infected with w

go
on to develop cancer, since this
pathogen is quite common it is
probably responsible for most of
these cancers.
- ©
 



@ wIV is associated with a number
of malignancies, including
Kaposi's sarcoma,
sarcoma, non
non--
wodgkin's lymphoma,
lymphoma, and wPVwPV--
associated malignancies such
as anal cancer and cervical
cancer

 



@ Cancer symptoms are quite
varied and depend on where
the cancer is located, where
it has spread, and how big
the tumor is. Some cancers
can be felt or seen through
the skin - a lump on the
breast or testicle can be an
indicator of cancer in those
locations. Skin cancer
(melanoma) is often noted
by a change in a wart or
mole on the skin. Some oral
cancers present white
patches inside the mouth or
white spots on the tongue.
@ Other cancers have symptoms
that are less physically
apparent. Some brain tumors
tend to present symptoms early
in the disease as they affect
important cognitive functions.
Pancreas cancers are usually
too small to cause symptoms
until they cause pain by
pushing against nearby nerves
or interfere with liver function to
cause a yellowing of the skin
and eyes called jaundice.
Symptoms also can be created
as a tumor grows and pushes
against organs and blood
vessels. For example, colon
cancers lead to symptoms such
as constipation, diarrhea, and
changes in stool size. Bladder
or prostate cancers cause
changes in bladder function
such as more frequent or
infrequent urination.
^



@ As cancer cells use the body's energy and interfere with
normal hormone function, it is possible to present
symptoms such as fever, fatigue, excessive sweating,
anemia, and unexplained weight loss. wowever, these
symptoms are common in several other maladies as well.
For example, coughing and hoarseness can point to lung
or throat cancer as well as several other conditions.
@ When cancer spreads, or metastasizes, additional
symptoms can present themselves in the newly affected
area. Swollen or enlarged lymph nodes are common and
likely to be present early. If cancer spreads to the brain,
patients may experience vertigo, headaches, or seizures.
Spreading to the lungs may cause coughing and
shortness of breath. In addition, the liver may become
enlarged and cause jaundice and bones can become
painful, brittle, and break easily. Symptoms of metastasis
ultimately depend on the location to which the cancer has
spread.
 
 

@ The specific causes of prostate cancer
remain unknown.A man's risk of
developing prostate cancer is related to
his age
age,, genetics
genetics,, race
race,, diet
diet,, lifestyle
lifestyle,,
medications,, and other factors. The
medications
primary risk factor is age. Prostate
cancer is very uncommon in men
younger than 45, but becomes more
common with advancing age. The
average age at the time of diagnosis is
70. wowever, many men never know
they have prostate cancer. Autopsy
studies of Chinese, German, Israeli,
Jamaican, Swedish, and Ugandan men
who died of other causes have found
prostate cancer in thirty percent of men
in their 50s, and in eighty percent of men
in their 70s. In the United States in 2005,
there were an estimated 230,000 new
cases of prostate cancer and 30,000
deaths due to prostate cancer. Men with
high blood pressure are more likely to
develop prostate cancer. A 2010 study
found that prostate basal cells were the
most common site of origin for prostate
cancers.
 


@ 
  
is a different
disease that appears and forms
differently in different women of
different age groups. Younger
women are more vulnerable to
this disease. If detected early,
this disease can be cured when
we knew the 
  

 
 
.

. For any kind of lungs
inside their breast, young women
are advised to carry out a self-
self-
examination every three to six
months to know

   


 .. And in every six

 
months, they should also go for a
medical examination.
 î


@ The main causes of any
cancer include carcinogens
(such as those in tobacco
smoke), ionizing radiation,
radiation,
and viral infection. This
exposure causes
cumulative changes to the
DNA in the tissue lining the
bronchi of the lungs (the
bronchial epithelium
epithelium).
). As
more tissue becomes
damaged, eventually a
cancer develops.
 


@ Benign polyps do not invade
nearby tissue or spread to other
parts of the body. Benign polyps
can be easily removed during
colonoscopy and are not life-
life-
threatening. If benign polyps are
not removed from the large
intestine, they can become
malignant (cancerous) over time.
Most of the cancers of the large
intestine are believed to have
developed from polyps. Cancer of
the colon and rectum (also referred
to as colorectal cancer) can invade
and damage adjacent tissues and
organs.
 ¦

@ Melanoma is the most serious type
of skin cancer. It begins in skin cells
called melanocytes. Melanocytes are
the cells that make melanin, which
gives skin its color. Melanin also
protects the deeper layers of the skin
from the sun's harmful ultraviolet
(UV) rays. When people spend time
in the sunlight, the melanocytes
make more melanin and cause the
skin to tan. This also happens when
skin is exposed to other forms of
ultraviolet light (such as in a tanning
booth). If the skin receives too much
ultraviolet light, the melanocytes may
begin to grow abnormally and
become cancerous. This condition is
called melanoma.


 

 
 

@ One of the best ways to prevent cancer is to not

smoke or chew tobacco. Many cancers can be
prevented by avoiding risk factors such as
excessive exposure to sunlight and heavy
drinking.
@ Cancer screenings, such as mammography and
breast examination for breast cancer and
colonoscopy for colon cancer, may help catch
these cancers at their early stages when they
are most treatable. Some people at high risk for
developing certain cancers can take medication
to reduce their risk.
@ Treatment also varies based
on the type of cancer and its
stage. The stage of a cancer
refers to how much it has
grown and whether the
tumor has spread from its
original location. If the
cancer is confined to one
location and has not spread,
the most common goals for
treatment are surgery and
cure. This is often the case
with skin cancers,
cancers, as well as
cancers of the lung, breast,
and colon.
@ If the tumor has spread to local lymph
nodes only, sometimes these can also be
removed.
@ If surgery cannot remove all of the cancer,
the options for treatment include radiation,
chemotherapy, or both. Some cancers
require a combination of surgery,
radiation, and chemotherapy.
@ Although treatment for cancer can be
difficult, there are many ways to keep up
your strength.
OIf you have radiation treatment, know that:
@ Radiation treatment is painless.
@ Treatment is usually scheduled every weekday.
@ You should allow 30 minutes for each treatment
session, although the treatment itself usually
takes only a few minutes.
@ You should get plenty of rest and eat a well-
well-
balanced diet during the course of your radiation
therapy.
@ Skin in the treated area may become sensitive
and easily irritated.
@ Side effects of radiation treatment are usually
temporary. They vary depending on the area of
the body that is being treated.
@ If you are going through
chemotherapy, you should
eat right. Chemotherapy
causes your immune
system to weaken, so you
should avoid people with
colds or the flu. You should
also get plenty of rest, and
don't feel as though you
have to accomplish tasks
all at once.
@ It will help you to talk with
family, friends, or a support
group about your feelings.
Work with your health care
providers throughout your
treatment. welping yourself
can make you feel more in
control.
    



@ The outlook depends on the type of cancer.
Even among people with one type of cancer, the
outcome varies depending on the stage of the
tumor when they are diagnosed.
@ Some cancers can be cured. Some cancers that
are not curable can still be treated well. And
some patients can live for many years with their
cancer. Other tumors are quickly life-
life-
threatening.
@ 2    
originally, it meant any abnormal swelling, lump
or mass. In current English, however, the word tumor has become
synonymous with neoplasm, specifically solid neoplasm. Note that
some neoplasms, such as leukemia
leukemia,, do not form tumors.
@ Ô 


the scientific term to describe an abnormal proliferation
of genetically altered cells. Neoplasms can be benign or malignant:
@ ¦


  or 

  : : synonymous with 


..
@ 


  or 

  : : a tumor (solid neoplasm) that
stops growing, does not invade other tissues and does not form
metastases.
@ ©
 tumor is another synonym of 


.. The name refers to
invasion of surrounding tissues.
@ 





,, 
 
 or




 tumor: A neoplasm
that is not invasive but has the potential to progress to cancer
(become invasive) if left untreated. These lesions are, in order of
increasing potential for cancer, atypia
atypia,, dysplasia and carcinoma in
situ..
situ
@ The following terms can be used to describe a cancer:
@  


 

:: a test done on healthy people to detect tumors before
they become apparent. A mammogram is a screening test.
@ ÷
:
: the confirmation of the cancerous nature of a lump. This
usually requires a biopsy or removal of the tumor by surgery
surgery,,
followed by examination by a pathologist
pathologist..
@   
:
: the removal of a tumor by a surgeon
surgeon..
@  

 
:: the evaluation by a pathologist of the edges
of the tissue removed by the surgeon to determine if the tumor
was removed completely ("negative margins") or if tumor was left
behind ("positive margins").
@ d:: a number (usually on a scale of 3) established by a
d
pathologist to describe the degree of resemblance of the tumor to
the surrounding benign tissue.
@  :: a number (usually on a scale of 4) established by the
 
oncologist to describe the degree of invasion of the body by the
tumor.
@ G 

G 
:: new tumors that appear at the site of the original tumor after
surgery.
@ ¦  :: new tumors that appear far from the original tumor.
¦  
@ ¦
 :: a period, often measured in months or years, over which
¦
 
50% of the cancer patients are expected to be alive.
@ 2
  

the concept that a low- low-grade tumor transforms to a high-
high-
grade tumor over time. Example: Richter's transformation.
transformation.
@ ` :
: treatment with drugs.
@ G 
 :

 : treatment with radiations.
@ 0
therapy: treatment, either chemotherapy or radiation therapy, given
  surgery to kill the remaining cancer cells.
@ Ô 
therapy: treatment either chemotherapy or radiation therapy,
given   surgery to shrink a tumor to make its resection easier.
@  
:
: the probability of cure/remission after the therapy. It is usually
expressed as a probability of survival five years after diagnosis. Alternatively, it
can be expressed as the number of years when 50% of the patients are still
alive. Both numbers are derived from statistics accumulated with hundreds of
similar patients to give a Kaplan
Kaplan--Meier curve
curve..
@ `:: A cancer patient is "cured" or "in remission" if they live past the time by
`
which 95% of treated patients live after the date of their diagnosis of cancer.
This period varies among different types of cancer; for example, in the case of
wodgkin's disease this period is 10 years, whereas for Burkitt's lymphoma this
period would be 1 year. The phrase "cure" used in oncology is based upon the
statistical concept of a median survival time and disease-
disease-free median survival
time.