227-4c-Strengthening Mechanisms

Strengthening Mechanisms
V. Strengthening Mechanisms in Metals
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel

Strengthening Mechanisms in Metals
 The strength of a metal can be increased by various methods:

 Grain size reduction
 Alloying
 Work hardening
 Precipitation hardening

Grain Size Reduction
 The yield strength σY of a metal is inversely proportional to grain

size:
 σY = σ0 + k(d-1/2)
K and σ0 are
material constants
Fig.5.1. Coarse and Fine

grains

 Fine grains vs. coarse grains (schematic)
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 4

 Brass (Cu-Zn) alloy. A two-phase structure. Same magnification

(x100). Which one has coarse grains?

 Dislocation pile up at the grain boundaries.

Alloying
 The solute atoms added by alloying causes strain in the matrix

 This strain effects the dislocation motion.
 As a result the strength of the matrix increases.

Alloying
Fig.5.2. The effect of alloying on strength and %elongation of

Coarse and Fine grains
Work Hardening
 If a metal is plastically deformed at room temperature, it becomes

harder and stronger.
 The degree of plastic deformation can be expressed as percent cold
working.
 %CW = ((A0-Af)/A0)x100
where A0 is the initial cross-sectional area and Af is after
deformation.

Work Hardening
Fig.5.3. The effect of cold

working on strength of
aluminum

Work Hardening
0% CW
Grain morphology
30% CW after work hardening
(schematic)
60% CW


Recrystallization
 Cold deformation increases the amount of dislocations / cm3. As a

result the yield and UTS of the material increase as well.
 Cold deformation stores energy within the grains.
 Therefore, if the metal is heated to Recrystallization Temperature,
TR, new grains start to form and grow.
 After a definite period, the microstructure consists of new, strain free
grains:
 The ductility of the material is recovered: UTS and Yield Strength
decreased.

Recrystallization
Fig.5.5. Recrystallization in metals


Case Study
High Strength Low Alloy Steels:
 In automotive industry, the demand for advanced materials increase.

 The materials used must have high strength, weldable, enough
ductility, but low density.
 Therefore, specific strength becomes very important
i.e., UTS/Density
 A high strength material means that structures can be built using a
lower amount of material. Smaller sections can withstand higher
stresses.

Case Study
 Therefore lighter than they otherwise would be. This is an important

feature for cars and trucks because it leads to fuel economy and to
less damage to road surfaces. Also higher loads can be transported
with reduced weight of the truck.
 It is also important in the design of bridges since it means that the
centre spans can be longer and need fewer supporting beams.

Case Study
 Steel become a very important material in that respect:

1. Cheap
2. Highly flexible mechanical properties due to its complex phase
diagram.
3. Much more tough than other alloys like Al alloys.
4. Weldable (if microstructure is suitable)
5. Due to very high strength it can carry much more load with
respect to other light weight alloys at a given section. Therefore
weight saving is achieved.
 HSLA alloys (High Strength Low Alloy) is a new generation steel and
become a very important candidate in that respect.

Case Study
Conventional Hot Rolling of sheets:

1. Steel (in as-cast condition) is heated to approx. 1200C
2. Then it is hot rolled several steps (8-10 steps).
3. In each step the cross-sectional area is decreased. Due to high
temperature during rolling, recrystallization takes place at each
reduction step.
4. Recrystallization is an important mechanism for grain size
refinement.
5. Hot rolling finishes when the required thickness is achieved. Also
the sheet is cooled down to around 900C
6. The part is left to cool in air.


Hot Rolling
Recrystallization
 Conventional Hot Rolling

Case Study
Thermo-mechanical Rolling of HSLA steels:

1. Steel (in as-cast condition) is heated to approx. 1200C
2. Then it is hot rolled several steps (8-10 steps).
3. In each step the cross-sectional area is decreased. Due to high
temperature during rolling, recrystallization takes place at each
reduction step.
4. However, HSLA steels are micro-alloyed, i.e., 0,05% to 0,15%, with
Nb, Ti, Al .
5. These elements form extremely small precipitates (AlN, NbN, NbC,
TiN,TiC etc.) during hot Rolling. In HSLA, the aim is to PIN the
grains just after defomation so that grain growth cannot take place.
6. Small precipitates avoid grain growth after recrystallization.
7. The result is extremely fine grains in the final product.

Hot Rolling
Recrystallization
 Thermomechanical Rolling of HSLA

 Comparison of the grains in the final product of conventionally hot

rolled and thermo-mechanically hot rolled (HSLA)

Case Study
(a) x560 (b) x560

(a) 0,2%C conventional steel (b) 0,2%C thermo-mechanically rolled steel.
Compare the grain sizes. (courtesy of Diler Çelik A.Ş.)

227-4c-Strengthening Mechanisms

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Strengthening Mechanisms

V. Strengthening Mechanisms in Metals

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel

Strengthening Mechanisms in Metals

 The strength of a metal can be increased by various methods:

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel

Grain Size Reduction

 The yield strength σY of a metal is inversely proportional to grain

Fig.5.1. Coarse and Fine

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel

 Fine grains vs. coarse grains (schematic)

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 4

 Brass (Cu-Zn) alloy. A two-phase structure. Same magnification

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 5

 Dislocation pile up at the grain boundaries.

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 6

 The solute atoms added by alloying causes strain in the matrix

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel

Fig.5.2. The effect of alloying on strength and %elongation of

 If a metal is plastically deformed at room temperature, it becomes

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel

Fig.5.3. The effect of cold

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel

 Cold deformation increases the amount of dislocations / cm3. As a

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel

Fig.5.5. Recrystallization in metals

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel

High Strength Low Alloy Steels:

 In automotive industry, the demand for advanced materials increase.

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 16

 Therefore lighter than they otherwise would be. This is an important

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 17

 Steel become a very important material in that respect:

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 18

Conventional Hot Rolling of sheets:

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 19

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel

 Conventional Hot Rolling

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 21

Thermo-mechanical Rolling of HSLA steels:

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 22

 Thermomechanical Rolling of HSLA

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 23

 Comparison of the grains in the final product of conventionally hot

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 24

(a) x560 (b) x560

Prof.Dr. Bilgehan Ögel 25

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