Permanent loads

DC= dead load of structural components and

nonstructural attachments
DW= dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities
EH= horizontal earth pressure load
EV= vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill
ES= earth surcharge load
DD= down drag
Transient loads
LL= vehicular live load
BR= vehicular braking force
CE= vehicular centrifugal force
CT= vehicular collision force
IM= vehicular dynamic load allowance
EQ= earthquake
LS= live load surcharge
PL= pedestrian live load
WA= water load and stream pressure
WL= wind on live load
WS= wind load on structure
SE= settlement
SH= shrinkage
TG= temperature gradient
TU= uniform temperature
FR= friction
CR= creep
Permanent loads
• Dead load of structural components and
nonstructural attachments (DC)
structural components such as
girder,slab,cross beam,…
nonstructural attachments such as medians,
railings, signs,curbs,parapets…
Dead Load
• Dead load of wearing surface and utilities (DW)
Is the weight of Asphalt(wearing surface) and
Utilities (pipe lines,lightings,…)
 Material Unit weight Material Unit
(Kg/m3) weights
(Kg/m3)
Bituminous 2250 Aluminum 2800
wearing surfaces
Concrete, normal 2400 Cast iron 7200

Concrete, 1775 Soft clay 1600

lightweight
Compact sand, 1925 Steel 7850
silt, or clay
Lose sand, silt or 1600 Stone masonry 2725
gravel
Rolled gravel, 2450 Hard wood 960
macadam, or
ballast
Densities of Materials
 • Vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill (EV)
• Horizontal earth pressure load (EH)
• Earth surcharge loads (ES)
Earth pressure from a permanent earth surcharge
(eg. embankment)
• Down drag (DD)
The loads developed along the vertical sides of a
deep foundation element tending to drag it down
wards typically due to consolidation of soft soils
underneath embankments reducing its resistance.
Transient loads
• Vehicular live load (LL)

Vehicular live loading on the roadways of bridges , designated HL-

93(Highway Loading year 1993), shall consist of a combination
of the:
Design truck
design tandem
Design lane load

Consideration should be given to site-specific modifications to the

design truck, design tandem, and/or the design lane load under
the following conditions:
• The roadway is expected to carry unusually high percentages of
truck traffic;
• Flow control, such as a stop sign, traffic signal, or control booth,
causes trucks to collect on certain areas of a bridge or to not be
interrupted by light traffic; or
• Special industrial loads are common due to the location of the
bridge.
 DESIGN TRUCK
The weights and spacings of axles and wheels for
the design truck shall be as specified in Figure .
The spacing between the two 145 kN axles shall be
varied between 4.3 and 9.0 m to produce extreme
force effects.
A dynamic load allowance shall be considered as
specified on Vehicular Dynamic Load Allowance.
Characteristics of Design Truck
 DESIGN TANDEM

The design tandem used for Strategic Bridges

shall consist of a pair of 110 kN axles spaced 1.2
m apart. The transverse spacing of wheels shall
be taken as 1.8 m.
A dynamic load allowance shall be considered as
specified.
 110 kN

1.2 m

110 kN

1.8 m

Design Tandem Load

 DESIGN LANE LOAD
The design lane load shall consist of a load of 9.3
kN/m, uniformly distributed in the longitudinal
direction. Transversely, the design lane load shall
be assumed to be uniformly distributed over a
3.0-m width.
The force effects from the design lane load shall
not be subject to a dynamic load allowance.
Design Lane Load
Design Lane: The number of lanes a bridge may accommodate

• The traffic lane is the number of lanes of traffic that the traffic
engineer plans to route across the bridge. A lane width is
associated with a traffic lane and is typically 3600mm.

• The design lane is the lane designation used by the bridge

engineer for live load placement. The design lane width and
location may or may not the same as the traffic lane. AASHTO
uses a 3000mm design lane and the vehicle is to be positioned
within that lane for extreme effect.
Multiple Presence
• Trucks will be present in adjacent lanes on
roadways with multiple design lanes but it is
unlikely that three adjacent lanes will be loaded
simultaneously with the heavy loads. Therefore
some adjustments in the design loads are
necessary. To account for this effect AASHTO
provides an adjustment factor for multiple
presence (m).
Number of Design Multiple Presence
lanes Factors “m”
1 1.20

2 1.00

3 0.85

More than 3 0.65

Vehicular dynamic load allowance (IM)
Highway live loads shall be increased to allow for
dynamic, vibratory and impact effects. Dynamic
load allowance, IM, is give in Table

Components IM(%)
Deck joints –All limit state 75

All other components

Fatigue and fracture limit 15
state 33
All other limit state
Centrifugal Force (CE)
Curved bridges are subject to centrifugal forces applied by the
vehicles that travel on them. This force is equal to the weight of
the vehicle multiplied by the factor C given by the equation:

V=the highway Design speed, (m/s)

R=radius of the curvature of traffic lane (m)
g=gravitational acceleration (m/s2)

The centrifugal force shall be applied at a distance 1800mm

above the roadway surface.
 Braking Force (BR)
Braking forces are transmitted to the deck and must be
taken into substructure at the fixed bearing or supports.
Braking force determined from, b, the fraction of the
vehicle weight given by:

s=the braking distance

The braking force shall be taken as 25% of the axel weights
of the design truck or the tandem truck placed in all lanes.
The breaking force is assumed to act horizontally at 1.8 m
above the roadway surface in the longitudinal direction.
Pedestrian Loads (PL)

The AASHTO pedestrian load is 3.6 kPa which is

applied to sidewalks that are integral with a
roadway bridges. If the load is applied to a
bridge restricted to pedestrian and/or bicycle
traffic, then a 4.1 kPa live load is used.
Wind Loads (WS)
Wind load on bridges is assumed to be uniformly distributed acting
perpendicular to the projected area of exposed components. The wind
pressure on structures is determined from

PB= base pressure given in Table

VDZ =the design wind velocity at design elevation Z (km/hr)
V10 =the wind velocity at 10 m above low ground or above design water level
(km/h)
VB=is the base wind velocity of 160 km /hr
Z= height of structure in which wind force is calculated

Z0=the friction length of upstream fetch taken as specified in Table

V0=friction velocity Table
 Table Values of V0 and Z0 for various upstream surface
conditions

Condition Open Sub City

country urban
Vo(km/h) 13.2 17.6 19.3

Zo(mm) 70 1000 2500

Table: Base Pressure, PB corresponding to VB=160
km/h
Structural components Wind Leeward
Load Load
(MPa) (MPA)
Trusses , columns and 0.0024 0.0012
arches
Beams 0.0024 NA

Large flat surfaces 0.0019 NA

The minimum wind loading shall not be less than
4.4 N/mm in the plane of the windward chord
and 2.2 N/mm in the plane the leeward chord on
truss and arch components, and not less than 4.4
N/mm on girder components.

Wind pressure on vehicles(WL)

The wind must also be considered on the vehicle.
This load is 1.46 kN/m applied at 1.8 m above the
roadway surfaces.
Water forces (WA)
a) Longitudinal
Water flowing against and around structures creates a lateral force directly
on the structure. The forces in the longitudinal direction of substructure can be
determined from

P is pressure of flowing water (MPa)

CD is the drag coefficient given in Table

V is the design velocity of design flood (m/s)

b) Lateral
The lateral uniformly distributed pressure on a structure due to water flowing
at an angle θ to the longitudinal axis of the pier as shown in Fig. is

P is lateral pressure (MPa)

CL is the lateral drag coefficient given in Table
Table Drag Coefficients, CD

Type CD

Semicircular noses pier 0.7

Square-ended pier 1.4

Drift lodged against pier 1.4

Wedged nosed pier with nose 0.8

angle 900 or less
Lateral Drag Coefficients, CL

Angle, θ ,between direction CL

of flow and longitudinal
axis of the pier
00 0.0
50 0.5
100 0.7
200 0.9
>300 1.0
 Seismic Forces (EQ)
In seismic areas, earthquake actions should be
considered in bridge design. The behavior of a
structure during an earthquake depends on its
dynamic behavior, namely its natural vibration
modes and frequencies, and damping coefficients.
Forces Due to Super imposed Deformations
a) Temperature (TU, TG)

• Two types of temperature changes must be

included in the analysis of the superstructure.
uniform temperature change (TU) where the entire
superstructure changes temperature by a constant
amount. This type of change lengthens or shortens
the bridges, or if the support are constrained it will
induce reactions at the bearing and forces in the
structure.
 gradient or non uniform heating (or cooling) of
the superstructure (TG) across its depth.
Subjected to sunshine, the bridge deck heats more
than the girder below. This non uniform heating
causes the temperature to increase more on top
portion of than in the bottom and the girder
attempt to bow up word. If restrained by internal
supports or by unintentional end restraints,
compatibility actions are induced.
Temperature induced elongation
Temperature induced curvature
b) Shrinkage:(SH) and Creep (CR)

Where appropriate, differential shrinkage strains

shall be considered. In composite girders the
effect of concrete shrinkage should be considered.
Generally, shrinkage effects are only taken into
account when the effect is additive to the other
action effects. Creep should also be accounted
and deformation due to creep depends on time
and compressive stresses.
Settlements: (SE)
The settlements of foundations determined by
geotechnical calculations should be taken into
account during design of the superstructure.
For continuous beams the decisive settlements
are differential vertical settlements and rotations
about an axis parallel to the bridge axis.
DESIGN LOADS
&
COMBINATION
Quantifying Design Load
The total factored force effect
Q = ii Qi
where:
i= load modifier (see Chapter 2: General Requirements)
Qi = force effects from loads specified herein
i = load factors specified in Tables 3-2 and 3-3 of
ERA Manual
The load modifier ηi is a factor that takes into account
the ductility, redundancy, and operational importance
of the bridge.
For loads for which a maximum value of γi is appropriate:
i = D R I  0.95
For loads for which a minimum value of γi is appropriate:
i = 1  1.0 (2.3)
D R I

Where
ηD = the ductility factor
ηR= is the redundancy factor
ηI= is the operational important factors
• Ductility factor ηD: Ductility enables overloaded
portions of the structure redistribute the load to
other portions that have reserve strength. This
redistribution is dependent on the ability of the
overloaded component and its connection to
develop inelastic deformations without failure.
For Strength limit state:
ηD=1.05 for non ductile component and connections
ηD=0.95 for ductile components and connections
For other limit states: ηD=1.0
Redundancy factor ηR: redundancy
significantly affects the safety margin of the bridge
structure. A statically indeterminate structure is
redundant. Example, in a three span bridge, any
combination of two supports, or two moments, or
one support or one moment could lost without
intermediate collapse., because the applied load
could find alternative load paths to the ground.
For the Strength limit state
ηR=1.05 for nonredundant members
ηR=0.95 for redundant memebrs
For other limit states: ηR=1.0
Operational Importance Factor ηI Bridges can
be considered of operational importance if they are on
the shortest path between residential areas and a
hospital or schools, provide access for police, fire, and
rescue vehicles to homes, business, and industrial
plants. One example of a non important bridge could
be on a secondary road leading to a remote
recreational area that is open year round.
For Strength limit state
ηI≥1.05 for important bridge
ηI≥0.95 for a nonimportant bridge
For other limit states: ηI=1.0
Components and connections of a bridge shall
satisfy the above Equation for the applicable
combinations of factored extreme force effects
as specified at each of the limit states presented
below.
 Basic load combination relating to the normal vehicular use of
the bridge without wind.
STRENGTH I

A reduced value of 0.50, applicable to all strength load

combinations, specified for uniform temperature (TU), creep
(CR), and shrinkage (SH), used when calculating force effects
other than displacements at the strength limit state, represents
an expected reduction of these force effects in conjunction with
the inelastic response of the structure. The calculation of
displacements for these loads utilizes a factor greater than 1.0 to
avoid undersized joints and bearings.
Load combination relating to the use of the bridge by ERA-specified
special design or permit vehicles, without wind.
STRENGTH II

The permit vehicle should not be assumed to be the only vehicle on the
bridge unless so assured by traffic control. Otherwise, the other lanes
should be assumed to be occupied by the vehicular live load as specified
herein. For bridges longer than the permit vehicle, the presence of the
design lane load, preceding and following the permit load in its lane,
should be considered.
STRENGTH III Load combination relating to the bridge exposed to wind
velocity exceeding 90 km/h.
Vehicles become unstable at higher wind velocities. Therefore,
high winds prevent the presence of significant live load on the
bridge.

Load combination relating to very high dead load to live load force effect
ratios.
STRENGTH IV

The standard calibration process for the strength limit state consists of trying out various
combinations of load and resistance factors on a number of bridges and their components.
Combinations that yield a safety index close to the target value of  = 3.5 are retained for
potential application. From these are selected constant load factors  and corresponding
resistance factors  for each type of structural component reflecting its use.

This calibration process had been carried out for a large number of bridges with spans not
exceeding 60 m. For the primary components of large bridges, the ratio of dead and live
load force effects is rather high, and could result in a set of resistance factors different
from those found acceptable for small- and medium-span bridges. It is believed to be
more practical to investigate one additional load case than to require the use of two sets of
resistance factors with the load factors provided in Strength Load Combination I,
depending on other permanent loads present. For bridges with up to 180 m spans, Load
Combination IV will govern where the dead load to live load force effect ratio exceeds 7.0.
 Load combination relating to normal vehicular use of the bridge
EXTREME EVENT I STRENGTH V

with wind of 90 km/h (25 m/s) velocity

Load combination including earthquake

This limit state includes water loads, WA. The probability of a major flood
and an earthquake occurring at the same time is very small. Therefore,
consideration of basing water loads and scour depths on mean discharges
shall be warranted. Live load coincident with an earthquake is discussed
elsewhere in this chapter.
 Load combination relating to the normal operational use of the
bridge with a 90 km/h (25 m/s) wind and all loads taken at their
nominal values. Also related to deflection control in buried
metal structures, tunnel liner plate, and thermoplastic pipe and
SERVICE I

to control crack width in reinforced concrete structures. This

load combination should also be used for the investigation of
slope stability.

Compression in prestressed concrete components is

investigated using this load combination. Service III is used to
investigate tensile stresses in prestressed concrete components.

Load combination intended to control yielding of steel structures and slip of slip
critical connections due to vehicular live load.
SERVICE II

This load combination corresponds to the overload provision for steel structures
(as in Ref 25), and it is applicable only to steel structures. From the point of view
of load level, this combination is approximately halfway between that used for
Service I and Strength I Limit States.
 Load combination relating only to tension in prestressed
SERVICE III

concrete structures with the objective of crack control.

The live load specified in these Specifications reflects, among

other things, exclusion weight limits. The statistical significance
of the 0.80 factor on live load is that the event is expected to
occur about once a year for bridges with two traffic lanes, less
often for bridges with more than two traffic lanes, and about
once a day for bridges with a single traffic lane.
Fatigue and fracture load combination relating to repetitive gravitational
FATIGUE

vehicular live load and dynamic responses under a single design truck
having a constant axle spacing of 9.0 m between 145 kN axles.

The load factor, applied to a single design truck, reflects a load level found
to be representative of the truck population with respect to a large number
of return cycles of stresses and to their cumulative effects in steel elements,
components, and connections.
• The factors shall be selected to produce the total extreme factored
force effect. For each load combination, both positive and negative
extremes shall be investigated.

• In load combinations where one force effect decreases

another effect, the minimum value shall be applied to the
load reducing the force effect. For permanent force
effects, the load factor that produces the more critical
combination shall be selected from Table 3-3.

• Where the permanent load increases the stability or load-

carrying capacity of a component or bridge, the
minimum value of the load factor for that permanent
load shall also be investigated.

• The larger of the two values provided for load factors of Uniform
Temperature (TU), Creep (CR), and Shrinkage (SH) shall be used
for deformations and the smaller values for all other effects.
• In the application of permanent loads, force
effects for each of the specified six load types
should be computed separately.

• For each force effect, both extreme combinations

may need to be investigated by applying either
the high or the low load factor as appropriate.
The algebraic sums of these products are the
total force effects for which the bridge and its
components should be designed.
 LOAD FACTORS FOR CONSTRUCTION LOADS

• Load factors for the weight of the structure and

appurtenances shall not be taken to be less than
1.25.

• Unless otherwise specified by ERA, the load factor

for construction loads, for equipment and for
dynamic effects shall not be less than 1.5. The load
factor for wind shall not be less than 1.25. All other
load factors shall be taken as 1.0.

• The load factors presented here should not relieve

the contractor of responsibility for safety and
damage control during construction.
 VEHICULAR LIVE LOAD
Number of Design Lanes

• Generally, the number of design lanes should be determined

by taking the integer part of the ratio w/3000, where w is the
clear roadway width in mm between curbs and/or barriers.
Possible future changes in the physical or functional clear
roadway width of the bridge should be considered.

• In cases where the traffic lanes are less than 3.0 m wide, the
number of design lanes shall be equal to the number of traffic
lanes, and the width of the design lane shall be taken as the
width of the traffic lane.

• Wherever possible, bridges should be built to accommodate

the standard design lane and appropriate shoulders as
specified in chapter 2 section 2.3 of this manual.
• The extreme live load force effect shall be determined by
considering each possible combination of number of loaded
lanes multiplied by the corresponding factor specified in
Table 3-5. For the purpose of determining the number of
lanes when the loading condition includes the pedestrian
loads specified later in this chapter combined with one or
more lanes of the vehicular live load, the pedestrian loads
shall be taken to be one loaded lane.

• The m-factors specified below shall not be applied in

conjunction with approximate load distribution factors
specified in Chapter 13: Approximate Methods of Analysis,
except where the lever rule is used or where special
requirements for exterior beams in beam-slab bridges is
applied.
 Load DC LL WA WS WL FR TU TG SE Use one of
Combination DD IM CR these at a
DW CE SH time
EH BR
EV PL
ES LS
Limit State EL EQ CT
STRENGTH 1 p 1.75 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -
(Unless noted)
STRENGTH II p 1.35 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -
STRENGTH III p - 1.00 1.40 - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -
STRENGTH IV - -
EH, EV, ES, DW p - 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 - -
DC ONLY 1.5
STRENGTH V p 1.35 1.00 0.50 1.0 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -
EXTREME p EQ 1.00 - - 1.00 - - - 1.0 -
EVENT I 0
SERVICE I 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.30 1.0 1.00 1.00/1.20 TG SE - -
SERVICE II 1.00 1.30 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 - - - -
SERVICE III 1.00 0.80 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 TG SE - -
FATIGUE
LL, IM and CE - 0.75 - - - - - - - - -
ONLY
 Type of Load Load Factor (p)
Maximum Minimum
DC: Component and Attachments 1.25 0.90
DD: Downdrag 1.80 0.45
DW: Wearing Surfaces and Utilities 1.50 0.65
EH: Horizontal Earth Pressure
 Active 1.50 0.90
 At-Rest 1.35 0.90
EL: Locked-in Erection Stresses 1.0 1.0
EV: Vertical Earth Pressure
 Overall Stability 1.35 N/A
 Retaining Structure 1.35 1.00
 Rigid Buried Structure 1.30 0.90
 Rigid Frames 1.35 0.90
 Flexible Buried Structures other than 1.95 0.90
Metal Box Culvert
 Flexible Metal Box Culverts 1.50 0.90
ES: Earth Surcharge 1.50 0.75
 APPLICATION OF DESIGN VEHICULAR LIVE LOADS

• The effects of an axle sequence and the lane load are superimposed
in order to obtain extreme values.

• Unless otherwise specified, the extreme force effect shall be taken as the
larger of the following:

 The effect of the design tandem combined with the effect of the design lane
load, or
 The effect of one design truck with the variable axle spacing specified in the
subchapter Multiple Presence of Live Load above, combined with the effect
of the design lane load, and
 For both negative moment between points of contraflexure under a uniform
load on all spans, and reaction at interior piers only, 90% of the effect of
two design trucks spaced a minimum of 15.0 m between the lead axle of one
truck and the rear axle of the other truck, combined with 90% of the effect
of the design lane load. The distance between the 145 kN axles of each truck
shall be taken as 4.3 m.
Analysis Methods
 APPROXIMATE METHODS OF ANALYSIS

• In general, bridge structures are to be analyzed elastically. However,

this chapter permits the inelastic analysis or redistribution of force
effects in some continuous beam superstructures. It specifies
inelastic analysis for compressive members behaving ineleastically
and as an alternative for extreme event limit states.

• If the span length of a superstructure with torsionally stiff closed

cross-sections exceeds 2.5 times its width, the superstructure shall
be idealized as a single steel spine within a concrete beam.

• Segments of horizontally curved superstructures with torsionally

stiff closed sections whose central angle subtended by a curved span
or portion thereof is less than 12 shall be analyzed as if the segment
were straight.
 DECKS

• An approximate method of analysis in which the deck is subdivided

into strips perpendicular to the supporting components
shall be considered acceptable for decks other than fully filled and
partially filled grids, for which the provisions of section Live Load
Distribution on Fully and Partially Filled Grids, below, shall apply.

• Where the strip method is used, the extreme positive moment in

any deck panel between girders shall be taken to apply to all positive
moment regions. Similarly, the extreme negative moment over
any beam or girder shall be taken to apply to all negative moment
regions.

• In determining the strip widths, the effects of flexure in the

secondary direction and of torsion on the distribution of internal
force effects are accounted for to obtain flexural force effects
approximating those that would be provided by a more refined
method of analysis.
Depending on the type of deck, modeling and design in the secondary direction
may utilize one of the following approximations:

• Secondary strip designed in a manner like the primary strip, with all the limit
states applicable;
• Resistance requirements in the secondary direction determined as a percent of that
in the primary one as specified in the traditional approach for reinforced
concrete slabs (as in Ref. 1); or
• Minimum structural and/or geometry requirements specified for the secondary
direction independent of actual force effects, as is the case for most wood
decks.

• The approximate strip model for decks is based on rectangular layouts. While skew
generally tends to decrease extreme force effects, it produces negative moments at
corners, torsional moments in the end zones, substantial redistribution of reaction
forces, and a number of other structural phenomena that should be considered in the
design.

APPLICABILITY

• For slab bridges and concrete slabs spanning more than 4.6 m and with span
primarily in the direction parallel to traffic, the provisions of section 13.5: Equivalent
Strip Widths for Slab-Type Bridges, shall apply.
 WIDTH OF EQUIVALENT INTERIOR STRIPS

• The Width of the equivalent strip of a deck shall be taken as

specified in Table 13-1. Where decks span primarily in the direction
parallel to traffic, strips supporting an axle load shall not be taken to
be greater than 1.0 m for open grids, and not greater than 3.0 m for
all other decks where multilane loading is being investigated. For
deck overhangs, where applicable, the provisions of section 3.8:
Gravity Loads/Deck Overhang Load shall be used in lieu of the
strip width specified in Table 13-1 for deck overhangs. The
equivalent strips for decks that span primarily in the transverse
direction shall not be subject to width limits.

• Values provided for equivalent strip widths and strength

requirements in the secondary direction are based on past
experience. Practical experience and future research work may lead
to refinement.

• To get the load per unit width of the equivalent strip, divide the total
load on one design traffic lane by the calculated strip width.
 DIRECTION OF PRIMARY WIDTH OF PRIMARY
TYPE OF DECK STRIP RELATIVE TO STRIP (mm)
TRAFFIC

Concrete:
Overhang 1140 + 0.833X
 Cast-in-place Either Parallel or Perpendicular +M: 660 + 0.55S
-M: 1220 + 0.25S

 Cast-in-place with +M: 660 + 0.55S

stay-in-place concrete Either Parallel or Perpendicular
-M: 1220 + 0.25S
formwork

Wood:

 Spike-laminated
 Continuous decks or Parallel 2.0h + 760
interconnected panels Perpendicular 4.0h + 1020
 Non-interconnected 2.0h + 760
panels Parallel 2.0h +1020
Perpendicular
 Planks Plank Width

Table 13-1 Equivalent Strips for Different Types of Decks

Where
S = spacing of supporting components (mm)
h= depth of deck (mm)
+M=positive moment
-M=negative moment
X=distance from load to point of support(mm)
 WIDTH OF EQUIVALENT STRIPS AT EDGES OF SLABS
• For the purpose of design, the notional edge beam shall be taken as a reduced
deck strip width specified herein, plus any additional integral local thickening
or similar protrudence acting as a stiffener to the deck. Edge beams shall be
assumed to support one line of wheels and, where appropriate, a tributary
portion of the design lane load.

• Longitudinal Edges: Where decks span primarily in the direction of traffic,

the effective width of a strip, with or without an edge beam, shall be taken as the
sum of the distance between the edge of the deck and the inside face of the
barrier, plus 300 mm, plus one-half of the strip width, specified in either section
“Width of Equivalent Interior Strips” above, or section 13.5: Equivalent Strip
Widths for Slab-Type Bridges, as appropriate. The effective width shall not
exceed either the full strip width or 1800 mm.

• Transverse Edges: The effective width of a strip, with or without an edge

beam, shall be taken as the sum of the distance between the transverse edge of
the deck and the centerline of the first line of support for the deck, usually taken
as a girder web, plus one-half of the width of strip as specified in section 13.5:
Equivalent Strip Widths for Slab-Type Bridges. The effective width shall not
exceed the full strip width specified in section 13.5: Equivalent Strip Widths for
Slab-Type Bridges.
 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS

• If the spacing of supporting components in the secondary

direction exceeds 1.5 times the spacing in the primary direction, all
of the wheel loads shall be considered to be applied to the primary
strip, and the provisions specified in the traditional approach
shall be applied to the secondary direction.
• If the spacing of supporting components in the secondary
direction is less than 1.5 times the spacing in the primary
direction, the deck shall be modeled as a system of intersecting
strips.
• The width of the equivalent strips in both directions shall be
taken as specified in Table 13-1. Each wheel load shall be distributed
between two intersecting strips. The distribution shall be
determined as the ratio between the stiffness of the strip and the
sum of stiffnesses of the intersecting strips. In the absence of more
precise calculations, the strip stiffness, ks, shall be estimated as:

where: Is = moment of inertia of the equivalent strip (mm4)

S = spacing of supporting components (mm)
 CALCULATION OF FORCE EFFECTS
• The strips shall be treated as continuous beams or simply
supported beams, as appropriate.
• Span length shall be taken as the center-to-center distance
between the supporting components. For the purpose of
determining force effects in the strip, the supporting
components shall be assumed to be infinitely rigid.

• The wheel loads shall be modeled as concentrated loads or as

patch loads whose length along the span shall be the length of
the tire contact area, as specified in section 3.8 Gravity
Loads: Tire Contact Area, plus the depth of the deck. The
strips should be analyzed by classical beam theory.
• The design section for negative moments and shear
forces, where investigated, shall be taken as follows:
For monolithic construction and concrete box beams at the
face of the supporting component;
For steel and wood beams: one-quarter the flange width
from the centerline of support;
For precast I-shaped and T-shaped concrete beams: one-
third the flange width, but not exceeding 380 mm from the centerline
of support.

• For the purpose of this chapter, each web of a steel or concrete box beam
shall be treated as a separate supporting component.

• For short-spans, the force effects calculated using the footprint could be
significantly lower, and more realistic, than force effects calculated using
concentrated loads.

• Past practice has been not to check shear in typical decks. A design section
for shear is provided for use in nontraditional situations. It is not the intent
to investigate shear in every deck.
 CROSS-SECTIONAL FRAME ACTION

• Where decks are an integral part of Box or Cellular cross-sections,

flexural and/or torsional stiffnesses of supporting components of
the cross-section, i.e., the webs and bottom flange, are likely to
cause significant force effects in the deck. Those components shall
be included in the analysis of the deck.

• If the length of a frame segment is modeled as the width of an

equivalent strip, provisions of above sections Width of Equivalent
Interior Strips, Distribution of Wheel Loads, and Calculation of
Force Effects, shall be used.

• The model used is essentially a transverse segmental strip, in which

flexural continuity provided by the webs and bottom flange is
included. Such modeling is restricted to closed cross-sections only.
In open-framed structures, a degree of transverse frame action also
exists, but it can be determined only by complex, refined analysis.

• In normal beam-slab superstructures, cross-sectional frame action

may safely be neglected.
• If the slab is supported by box beams or is integrated into a cellular cross-section, the
effects of frame action could be considerable. Such action usually decreases positive
moments, but may increase negative moments resulting in cracking of the deck. For larger
structures, a three-dimensional analysis shall be appropriate. For smaller structures, the
analysis could be restricted to a segment of the bridge whose length is the width of an
equivalent strip.

Extreme force effects shall be calculated by combining the:

Longitudinal response of the superstructure approximated by classical beam theory, and
Transverse flexural response modeled as a cross-sectional frame.

LIVE LOAD DISTRIBUTION ON FULLY FILLED AND PARTIALLY FILLED GRIDS

Moments in Nmm/mm of grid due to live load in filled and partially filled grids shall be
determined as:

Main bars transverse to traffic:

M = C lt p D0.25 [42.3 * ln(0.039S) - 74]

Main bars parallel to direction of traffic

where:
S = span length (mm), 500 mm < S < 10 000 mm in
Equation 13.2, and
500 mm < S < 5000 mm in Equation 13.3
C = continuity factor, 1.0 for simply supported and 0.8
for continuous spans
lt= tire length, along direction of traffic, as specified in
section 3.8 Gravity Loads: Tire Contact Area (mm)
p=tire pressure taken as 0.86 MPa
D=Dx/Dy
Dx=flexural rigidity in direction of main bars (N-
mm2/mm)
Dy=flexural rigidity perpendicular to the main bars
(N-mm2/mm)
• Where test results are not available, the stiffness ratio, D, shall be taken
as:
For fully filled grids with at least 38mm monolithic overfill 2.0
For all other fully filled grids 2.5
For partially filled grids with at least 38 mm monolithic overfill 8.0
For all other partially filled grids 10.0

• The moment equations have been derived from orthotropic plate theory
and stiffness ratios obtained in full-scale laboratory tests of filled and
partially filled grids based on a 500 mm wide, 200 mm long tire contact
area. Moments resulting from these equations compare well with full-
scale test results and finite difference and finite element solutions. The
tire contact area, specified in section 3.8 Gravity Loads: Tire Contact
Area, factored for the Strength I Load Combination, is a 510 mm by 385
mm rectangle, therefore Equations 13.2 and 13.3 are expected to
produce conservative results.
• For on-the-road tire loads greater than those
indicated by the design truck, the factored tire
pressure should not be taken to be greater than 0.86
MPa, unless supported by condition-specific data,
which includes the tire contact area.

INELASTIC ANALYSIS

• The inelastic finite element analysis or yield line

analysis shall not be used unless otherwise
permitted by ERA.
 BEAM-SLAB BRIDGES
APPLICATION
• For beam spacing exceeding the range of applicability as specified in Tables
13-3 through 13-9, the live load on each beam shall be the reaction of the
loaded lanes based on the lever rule unless specified otherwise herein.

• The lever rule involves summing moments about one support to find the
reaction at another support by assuming that the supported component is
hinged at interior supports.

• When using the lever rule on a three-girder bridge, the notional model
should be taken as shown in Figure 13-1. Moments should be taken about
the assumed, or notional, hinge in the deck over the middle girder to find
the reaction on the exterior girder.

Figure 13-1 Notional Model for Applying Lever Rule to Three-Girder Bridges
• The provisions of section 3.8: Gravity Load: Multiple
Presence of Live Load specify that multiple presence factors
shall not be used with the approximate load assignment
methods other than statical moment or lever arm methods
because these factors are already incorporated in the
distribution factors.

• Bridges not meeting the requirements of this chapter

shall be analyzed as specified in Chapter 12: Detail Design of
Bridges and Structures.

• The distribution of live load, specified in the two following

sections of this subchapter, shall be used for girders, beams,
and stringers, other than multiple steel box beams with
concrete decks that meet the following conditions and any
other conditions identified in tables of distribution factors
as specified herein:
• Width of deck is constant;
• Number of beams is not less than four, unless otherwise specified;
• Beams are parallel and have approximately the same stiffness;
• Unless otherwise specified, the roadway part of the overhang, de, does not exceed 0.9m;
• Curvature in plan is less than the limit specified in section 13.1: General above; and
• Cross-section is consistent with one of the cross-sections shown in Table 13-2.

Where moderate deviations from a constant deck width or parallel beams exist, the equations
in the tables of distribution factors shall be used in conjunction with a suitable value for beam
spacing.

In Strength Load Combination II, applying a distribution factor procedure to a loading

involving a heavy permit load can be overly conservative unless lane-by-lane distribution
factors are available. Use of a refined method of analysis will circumvent this situation.

Additional requirements for multiple steel box girders with concrete decks shall be as specified
in section “Interior Beams with Concrete Decks,” below.

Where bridges meet the conditions specified herein, permanent loads of and on the deck shall
be distributed uniformly among the beams and/or stringers.

Live load distribution factors, specified herein, shall be used for permit and rating vehicles
whose overall width is comparable to the width of the design truck.
• Unless otherwise stated, the stiffness parameters for area, moments of
inertia and torsional stiffness used herein and indicated in the following
text shall be taken as those of the cross-section to which traffic will be
applied, i.e., usually the composite section.

The longitudinal stiffness parameter, Kg, shall be taken as:

Kg=n (I + A eg2) in which: n = EB / ED (13.4)

where:
EB=modulus of elasticity of beam material (MPa)
ED=modulus of elasticity of deck material (MPa)
I=moment of inertia of beam (mm4)
eg=distance between the centers of gravity of the basic beam and deck (mm)
A = Area of concrete (mm2)

The parameters A and I in Equation 13.4 shall be taken as those of the non-
composite beam.

The bridge types indicated in Tables 13-3 through 13-9, with reference to
Figure 13-1, shall be taken as representative of the type of bridge to which each
approximate equation applies.
Except as permitted by Chapter 2: General Requirements, regardless of the
method of analysis used, i.e., approximate or refined, exterior girders of multi-
beam bridges shall not have less resistance than an interior beam.
• Most of the equations for distribution factors were derived for constant
deck width and parallel beams. Past designs with moderate exceptions to
these two assumptions have performed well when the "S/D" distribution
factors were used. While the distribution factors specified herein are more
representative of actual bridge behavior, common sense indicates that some
exceptions are still possible, especially if the parameter "S" is chosen with
prudent judgment.

• In lieu of more refined information, the St. Venant torsional inertia, J, shall
be determined as:
• For thin-walled open beam:

J  1/3 bt3 (13.5)

For stocky open sections, e.g., prestressed I-beams, etc., and solid sections:

J  A4 / 40 Ip (13.6)
For closed thin-walled shapes:
where:
b =width of plate element (mm)
t=thickness of plate-like element (mm)
A=area of cross-section (mm2)
Ip=polar moment of inertia (mm4)
Ao=area enclosed by centerlines of elements (mm2)
s=length of a side element (mm)

• Equation 13.6 has been shown to substantially underestimate the torsional

stiffness of some concrete I-beams (a more accurate, but more complex,
approximation can be found in Ref. 2).

• For beams with variable moment of inertia, Kg shall be based on average

properties.

• In some cases, the lower limit of deck slab thickness, ts shown in the range
of applicability column in Tables 13-3 through 13-9 is less than 180 mm.
The research used to develop the equation in those tables reflects the range
of slab thickness shown.
• Table 13-2 below describes how the term L
(length) shall be determined for use in the live
load distribution factor equations given below.

• In the rare occasion when the continuous span

arrangement is such that an interior span does
not have any positive uniform load moment,
i.e., no uniform load points of contra flexure,
the region of negative moment near the interior
supports would be increased to the centerline of
the span, and the L used in determining the live
load distribution factors would be the average of
the two adjacent spans.
 Force Effect
Positive Moment
Negative Moment – Near interior
supports of continuous spans from point
of contraflexure to point of contraflexure
under a uniform load on all spans
Negative Moment – Other than near
interior supports of continuous spans
Shear
Exterior Reaction
Interior Reaction of Continuous Span
Table 13-2 “L” for Use in Live Load Distribution Factor Equations
L (mm)
The length of the span for which
moment is being calculated
The average length of the two
adjacent spans
The length of the span for which
moment is being calculated
The length of the span for which
shear is being calculated
The length of the exterior span
The average length of the two
adjacent spans
 INTERIOR BEAMS WITH CONCRETE DECKS
• The live load flexural moment for interior beams with concrete decks shall be determined
by applying the lane fraction specified in Table 13-3. Applicable cross-sections are depicted
in Figure 13-2.

• For preliminary design, the terms Kg/(L ts3) and I/J shall be taken as 1.0.

• For concrete beams, other than box beams, used in multi-beam decks with shear keys:
Deep, rigid end diaphragms shall be provided to ensure proper load distribution, and
If the stem spacing of stemmed beams is less than 1.2 m or more than 3.0 m, a refined
analysis shall be used.

• For multiple steel box girders with a concrete deck, the live load flexural moment shall be
determined using the distribution factor specified in Table 13-3.

• When the spacing of the box girders varies along the length of the bridge, the value of NL
shall be determined, as specified in section 3.8: Gravity Loads/Number of Lanes, using
the width, W, taken at midspan.

• The results of analytical and model studies of simple span multiple box section bridges
(Ref. 3) showed that folded plate theory could be used to analyze the behavior of bridges of
this
Figure 13-2 Common Deck Superstructures
• Multiple presence factors, specified in Table 3-4, are
not applied because the multiple factors in past
editions of the Standard Specifications were
considered in the development of the equation in
Table 13-3 for multiple steel box girders.

• The lateral load distribution obtained for simple

spans is also considered applicable to continuous
structures.
Table 13-3 Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Moment in Interior Beam
• The bridges considered in the development of the
equations had interior end diaphragms only, i.e., no
interior diaphragms within the spans, and no exterior
diaphragms anywhere between boxes. If interior or
exterior diaphragms are provided within the span, the
transverse load distribution characteristics of the bridge
will be improved to some degree. This improvement can
be evaluated, if desired, using any method of analysis
that satisfies the requirements of equilibrium and
compatibility and uses stress-strain relationships for the
proposed materials.
EXTERIOR BEAMS

• The live load flexural moment for exterior beams shall be

determined by applying the lane fraction, g, specified in
Table 13-4.
 Applicable Cross- Two or More
Type of One Design Range of
section from Design Lanes
Superstructure Lane Loaded Applicability
Figure 13-2 Loaded

a, l Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A

Wood Deck on Wood
or Steel Beam
L Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
Concrete Deck on
Wood Beams

g = e ginterior
-300  de  1700
e = 0.77 + de
2800
Concrete Deck, filled Lever Rule
Grid, or Partially a, e, k and
Filled Grid on Steel also i, j if
Use lesser of the values
or Concrete Beams: sufficiently obtained from the Nb = 3
Concrete T-Beams. T connected to act equation above with Nb
and Double T as a unit = 3 or the lever rule
Sections
• The distance, de, shall be taken as positive if the exterior web is
inboard of the interior face of the traffic railing and negative if it is
outboard of the curb or traffic barrier.

• In beam-slab bridge cross-sections with diaphragms or cross-

frames, the distribution factor for the exterior beam shall not be
taken to be less than that which would be obtained by assuming that
the cross-section deflects and rotates as a rigid cross-section. The
provisions of section 3.8: Gravity Loads/Multiple Presence of Live
Load shall apply.

• This additional investigation is required because the distribution

factor for girders in a multi-girder cross-section, Types "a" and "e"
in Figure 13-2, was determined without consideration of diaphragm
or cross-frames. The recommended procedure is an interim
provision until research provides a better solution.

• The procedure outlined in this section is the same as the

conventional approximation for loads on piles.
where: R = reaction on exterior beam in terms of lanes
NL =number of loaded lanes under consideration
Nb =number of beams or girders
e =eccentricity of a design truck or a design lane load from the center of
gravity of the pattern of girders (mm)
x =horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the pattern of
girders to each girder (mm)
Xext =horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the pattern of
girders to the exterior girder (mm)

SKEWED BRIDGES

• When the line supports are skewed and the difference between skew angles
of two adjacent lines of supports does not exceed 10, the bending moment
in the beams shall be reduced in accordance with Table 13-5.
•
 Applicable
Cross-section Any Number of Design Range of
Type of Superstructure
from Figure Lanes Loaded Applicability
13-2
Concrete Deck, Filled 1 – c1 (tan )1.5
Grid, or Partially Filled 30o    60o
Grid on Steel or Concrete a, e and k c1 = 0.25 kg 0.25 S 0.5 1100  S  4900
Beams, Concrete T- Lt3s L 6000  L  73 000
Beams, T or Double T If  < 30o then c1 = 0.0 Nb  4
Sections If  > 60o use  = 60o

Table 13-5 Reduction of Load Distribution Factors for Moment in

Longitudinal Beams on Skewed Supports
• Accepted reduction factors are not currently available for
cases not covered in Table 13-5.

FLEXURAL MOMENTS AND SHEAR IN TRANSVERSE

FLOORBEAMS

• If the deck is supported directly by transverse

floorbeams, the floorbeams shall be designed for loads
determined in accordance with Table 13-6.

• The fractions provided in Table 13-6 shall be used in

conjunction with the 145 kN design axle load alone. For
spacings of floorbeams outside the given ranges of
applicability, all of the design live loads shall be
considered, and the lever rule shall be used.
Table 13-6 Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Transverse Beams for
Moment and Shear

Type of Deck Fraction of Wheel Load Range of Applicability

to Each Floor-Beam
Plank S / 1200 N/A
Concrete S / 1800 S  1800
 INTERIOR BEAMS

• The live load shear for interior beams shall be

determined by applying the lane fractions specified
in Table 13-7. For interior beam types not listed in
Table 13-7, lateral distribution of the wheel or axle
adjacent to the end of span shall be that produced by
use of the lever rule. For preliminary design, the
term I/J shall be taken as 1.0.

• For concrete box beams used in multi-beam decks, if

the values of I or J do not comply with the
limitations in Table 13-7, the distribution factor for
shear shall be taken as that for moment.
 Type of Applicable One Design Two or More Range of
Superstructure Cross-section Lane Loaded Design Lanes Applicability
from Figure Loaded
13-2
Concrete Deck on l Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
Wood Beams
Concrete Deck, Filled a, e, k and 1100  S 4900
2.0
Grid, or Partially also i, j if 0.36 + S 0.2 + S - S 6000  L  73000
Filled Grid on Steel or sufficiently 7600 3600 10700 110  ts  300
Concrete Beams: connected to 4x109  kg  3x1012
Concrete T-Beams. T act as a unit Nb  4
and Double T Sections Lever Rule Lever Rule Nb = 3
Multi-cell Concrete d 1800  S  4900
Box Beams, Box S 0.6 d 0.1
S 0.9 d 0.1
6000  L  73000
Sections 2900 L 2200 L 890  d  2800
Nc  3
Table 13-7 Distribution of Live Load per Lane for
Shear in Interior Beams
 EXTERIOR BEAMS

• The live load shear for exterior beams shall be

determined by applying the lane fractions specified
in Table 13-8. For cases not addressed in Table 13-7
and Table 13-8, the live load distribution to exterior
beams shall be determined by using the lever rule.

• The parameter de shall be taken as positive if the

exterior web is inboard of the curb or traffic barrier
and negative if it is outboard.

• The additional provisions for exterior beams in

beam-slab bridges with cross-frames or diaphragms,
specified in “Exterior Beams,” above, shall apply.
 Type of Applicable One Two or More Range of
Superstructure Cross-section Design Design Lanes Applicability
from Figure 13-2 Lane Loaded
Loaded
Wood Deck on Wood a, l Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
or steel Beams
Concrete Deck, Filled a, e, k and Lever Rule g = e ginterior -300  de  1700
Grid, or Partially Filled also i, j if
Grid on Steel or sufficiently  = 0.6 + de .
Concrete Beams; connected to act 3000
Concrete T-Beams, T- as a unit Lever Rule Nb = 3
and Double T-Beams
Multi-cell Concrete d Lever Rule g = e ginterior -600  de  1500
Box Beams, Box
Sections  = 0.64 + de .
3800
Steel Grid Deck on a Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
Steel Beams

Table 13-8 - Distribution of Live Load Per Lane for

Shear in Exterior Beams
 SKEWED BRIDGES

Shear in the exterior beam at the obtuse corner of the

bridge shall be adjusted when the line of support is
skewed. The value of the correction factor shall be
obtained from Table 13-9. It is applied to the lane
fraction specified in Table 13-7 for interior beams and
in Table 13-8 for exterior beams.

In determining the end shear in multi-beam bridges,

the skew correction at the obtuse corner shall be
applied to all the beams.
 Type of Superstructure Applicable Correction Factor Range of
Cross-section Applicability
from Figure
13-2
Concrete Deck, Filled Grid, a, e, k and also 0o    60o
or Partially Filled Grid on i, j if 3 0.3
 Lts  1100  S  4900
Steel or Concrete Beams; sufficiently 1.0  0.20  tan  6000  L  73 000
Concrete T-Beams, T- and connected to  Kg  Nb  4
Double T Section act as unit
ulti-cell Concrete Box d 0o    60o
Beams, Box sections 1.0 + 0.25 + L tan  1800  S  4000
70d 6000  L  73 000
900  d  2700
Nc  3

Table 13-9 - Correction Factors for Load Distribution Factors

for Support Shear of the Obtuse Corner
• Verifiable correction factors are not available for cases not covered in Table 13-9.

• The equal treatment of all beams in a multi-beam bridge is conservative regarding positive
reaction and shear. However, it, is not necessarily conservative regarding uplift in the case
of large skew and short exterior spans of continuous beams. A supplementary investigation
of uplift should be considered using the correction factor from Table 13-9, i.e., the terms
other than 1.0, taken as negative for the exterior beam at the acute corner.

• In Equation 13.8, the strip width has been divided by 1.20 to account for the multiple
presence effect.

EQUIVALENT STRIP WIDTHS FOR SLAB-TYPE BRIDGES

• This chapter shall be applied to the types of cross-sections shown schematically in Figure
13-2 and culverts under less than 600 mm of fill. For the purpose of this chapter, cast-in-
place voided slab bridges shall be considered as slab bridges.

• The equivalent width of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with
one lane, i.e., two lines of wheels, loaded shall be determined as:
• The equivalent width, E of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment
with more than one lane loaded shall be determined as:

where:

E =equivalent width (mm)

L1=modified span length taken  of the actual span or 18,000 (mm)
W1= modified edge-to-edge width of bridge taken to be  of the actual width or
18,000 mm for multilane loading, or 9,000 mm for single-lane loading (mm)
W=physical edge-to-edge width of bridge (mm)
NL=number of design lanes as specified in section 3.8: Gravity Loads/Number of
Lanes
For skewed bridges, the longitudinal force effects shall be reduced by the factor r:

r = 1.05 - 0.25 tan   1.00 (13.11)

where:  = skew angle (DEG)
 EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR, K

• Equations for the compressive resistance of columns and moment magnification factors for
beam-columns include a factor, K, which is used to modify the length according to the
restraint at the ends of the column against rotation and translation.

• Physical column lengths shall be multiplied by an effective length factor, K, representing

the ratio of the effective length of an idealized pin-end column to the actual length of a
column with various other end conditions. For the compression members in triangulated
trusses, trusses, and frames, K shall be taken as:
• For bolted or welded end connections at both ends: K = 0.750
• For pinned connections at both ends: K = 0.875

SHEAR – SECTIONAL DESIGN MODEL

GENERAL

• The resistance of members in shear or in shear combined with torsion shall be determined
by satisfying the conditions of equilibrium and compatibility of strains and by using
experimentally verified stress-strain relationships for reinforcement and for diagonally
cracked concrete.
 DETERMINATION OF  AND 
Simplified Procedure for Non-Prestressed Sections

• For non-prestressed concrete sections not subjected to axial tension and containing at least
the minimum amount of transverse reinforcement specified or having an overall depth of
< 400 mm, the following values shall be used:
 = 2.0
 = 45o
• With  taken as 2.0 and  as 45o, the expressions for shear strength become essentially
identical to those traditionally used for evaluating shear resistance. Recent large-scale
experiments (Ref. 4), however, have demonstrated that these traditional expressions can be
seriously unconservative for large members not containing transverse reinforcement.
GENERAL PROCEDURE

• For sections containing transverse reinforcement, the values of  and  shall be as specified
in Figure 13-3 and Table 13-10, and for sections not containing transverse reinforcement
these values shall be as specified in Figure 13-4 and Table 13-11.

• In using these tables or figures:

• The shear stress on the concrete shall be determined as:

(13.12)

• The strain in the reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the member shall be determined as:

(13.13)

• If the value of x, calculated from Equation 13.13, is negative, it shall be multiplied by the factor, F taken as:

(13.14)

Where:  = resistance factor for shear specified in Table 9-7.

Ac =area of concrete on the flexural tension side of the member as shown in Figure 13-5 below (mm2)
Aps =area of prestressing steel on the flexural tension side of the member, shown in Figure 13-5, reduced for any lack
of full development at the section under investigation (mm2)
Nu = factored axial force taken as positive if tensile (N)
Vu = factored shear force (N)
As =area of non-prestressed reinforcing steel on flexural tension side of member, as shown in Figure 13-5, reduced for
any lack of full development at the section under investigation (mm2)
 Mu =factored moment (Nmm)
fpo = stress in prestressing steel when the stress in the
surrounding concrete is 0.0 (MPa)

• The flexural tension side of the member should be taken as the half-
depth containing the flexural tension zone, as illustrated in Figure
13-5.

• The crack spacing parameter sx, used in Figure 13-4 and Table 13-11,
shall be taken as the lesser of either dv or the maximum distance
between layers of longitudinal crack control reinforcement. The
area of the reinforcement in each layer shall be  0.003 bv sx.

• In the general procedure,  and  are found from Figure 13-3 and
Table 13-10 or Figure 13-4 and Table 13-11. In these figures and
tables,  and  are given as functions of the strain x the shear stress
V and the crack spacing parameter sx.
Figure13-3 Values of  and  for Sections with Transverse Reinforcement
Figure 13-4 Values of  and  for Sections without
Transverse Reinforcement
 Table 13-10 Values of  and  for Sections with
Transverse Reinforcement

v x *1000
fc -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 0 0.125 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.5 2
<=0.05 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.0 28.5 29.0 33.0 36.0 41.0 43.0
6.78 6.17 5.63 4.88 3.99 3.49 2.51 2.37 2.23 1.95 1.72

0.075 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.0 27.5 30.0 33.5 36.0 40.0 42.0
6.78 6.17 5.63 4.88 3.65 3.01 2.47 2.33 2.16 1.90 1.65

0.1 23.5 23.5 23.5 23.5 24.0 26.5 30.5 34.0 36.0 38.0 39.0
6.50 5.87 5.31 3.26 2.61 2.54 2.41 2.28 2.09 1.72 1.45

0.125 20.0 21.0 22.0 23.5 26.0 28.0 31.5 34.0 36.0 37.0 38.0
2.71 2.71 2.71 2.60 2.57 2.50 2.37 2.18 2.01 1.60 1.35

0.15 22.0 22.5 23.5 25.0 27.0 29.0 32.0 34.0 36.0 36.5 37.0
2.66 2.61 2.61 2.55 2.50 2.45 2.28 2.06 1.93 1.50 1.24

0.175 23.5 24.0 25.0 26.5 28.0 30.0 32.5 34.0 35.0 35.5 36.0
2.59 2.58 2.54 2.50 2.41 2.39 2.20 1.95 1.74 1.35 1.11

0.2 25.0 25.5 26.5 27.5 29.0 31.0 33.0 34.0 34.5 35.0 36.0
2.55 2.49 2.48 2.45 2.37 2.33 2.10 1.82 1.58 1.21 1.00

0.225 26.5 27.0 27.5 29.0 30.5 32.0 33.0 34.0 34.5 36.5 39.0
2.45 2.44 2.43 2.37 2.33 2.27 1.92 1.67 1.43 1.18 1.14

0.25 28.0 28.5 29.0 30.0 31.0 32.0 33.0 34.0 35.5 38.5 41.5
2.36 2.36 2.32 2.30 2.28 2.01 1.64 1.52 1.40 1.30 1.25
 Table 13-11 - Values of  and  for Sections without
Transverse Reinforcement
x * 1000
sx
-0.2 -0.1 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.5 2

<=130 26.0 26.0 27.0 29.0 31.0 33.0 34.0 36.0 38.0
6.90 5.70 4.94 3.78 3.19 2.82 2.56 2.19 1.93

250 27.0 28.0 30.0 34.0 37.0 39.0 40.0 43.0 45.0
6.77 5.53 4.65 3.45 2.83 2.46 2.19 1.87 1.65

380 27.0 30.0 32.0 37.0 40.0 43.0 45.0 48.0 50.0
6.57 5.42 4.47 3.21 2.59 2.23 1.98 1.65 1.45

630 28.0 31.0 35.0 41.0 45.0 48.0 51.0 54.0 57.0
6.24 5.36 4.19 2.85 2.26 1.92 1.69 1.40 1.18

1270 31.0 33.0 38.0 48.0 53.0 57.0 59.0 63.0 66.0
5.62 5.24 3.83 2.39 1.82 1.50 1.27 1.00 0.83

2500 35.0 35.0 42.0 55.0 62.0 66.0 69.0 72.0 75.0
4.78 4.78 3.47 1.88 1.35 1.06 0.87 0.65 0.52

5000 42.0 42.0 47.0 64.0 71.0 74.0 77.0 80.0 82.0
3.83 3.83 3.11 1.39 0.90 0.66 0.53 0.37 0.28
Figure 13-5 Illustration of Ac
• The strain, x, is used as an indicator of the longitudinal stiffness of
the section and of the magnitude of the moment, axial force, and
prestressing force. Sections that contain large percentages of
longitudinal reinforcement, are prestressed, or are subjected to
small moments, will have low values of x. For many prestressed
sections, it will be found that x is close to 0.0. Such sections will
have small web deformations, and hence, high values of Vc.

• In determining x at a particular section, it is conservative to take Mu

as the highest factored moment that will occur at that section, rather
than a moment coincident with Vu. In calculating x, the stress fpo
can be conservatively taken as the effective stress after losses. fpe.
Alternatively, fpo can be taken as:

• It could be argued that the term Vu in Equation 13.13 should be

more accurately written as Vu -0.5 Vs – Vp. However, the concept of
using x as a parameter is innately imprecise enough to allow the
simplification of using only Vu.
• Note that in calculating x it is necessary to make an estimate for
cot. As it is conservative to overestimate x, it is best to use a low
value of  in determining x.

• Because x is a function of  in Equation 13-13, and  is related to x

in Tables 13-10 and 13-11 or Figures 13-3 and 13-4, an iterative
solution is required. A flow chart for shear design is shown in Figure
13-6, which indicates the iterative solution for  using  and x.

• The values of  and  are based on calculating the stresses that can
be transmitted across diagonally cracked concrete. As the cracks
become wider, the stress that can be transmitted decreases. For
members containing transverse reinforcement, it is assumed that
the diagonal cracks will be spaced about 300 mm apart. For
members without transverse reinforcement, the spacing of diagonal
cracks inclined at  to the longitudinal reinforcement is assumed to
be sx/sin. Hence, deeper members having larger values of sx are
assumed to have more widely spaced cracks and, hence, cannot
transmit such high shear stresses as shown in Figure 13-7, which
provides some guidance in the determination of the parameter sx.