Steam Generation & Heat Transfer in

Boilers
BOILERS
A boiler is a steam generator.
A boiler can be envisaged as a closed container
with water under pressure inside it.
In a furnace, a fuel is burnt and the energy
resulting is transferred to the water by
conduction, convection, and radiation.
Principal Types of Boilers
There are two principal types of boilers used in
industry namely fire-tube (Shell boiler) and
water-tube boilers.
Other classifications depend upon arrangement
of tubes
 FIRE-TUBE BOILERS (Shell Boilers)
In a fire-tube boiler , hot combustion gases run
through the tubes.
The tubes are surrounded with the water
that will be heated and changed to steam.
The tube system is contained in a large
pressure vessel that also contains the
water and steam.
Fire-tube boilers are available with pressure
outputs of 103.4 to 2413 k Pa.
When higher pressures, the shell of the boiler
needs to be made of thicker material. These are
available to produce steam in the range from 10
to 1100 kW.
A fire-tube boiler can be envisaged as a shell
and tube heat exchanger.
The overall efficiency is increased by increasing
the number of tubes thus increasing the heat
transfer area
Combustion of the fuel occurs in a refractory
lined furnace, and the flue gases are circulated
through the tubes to the stack outlet.
Water absorbs most of the heat, very little of
the heat will be lost in the stack, resulting in
high boiler efficiency.
The hot gases can pass through the boiler in a
number of ways.
 In a single-pass design, the gas passes through
the tubes and out through the stack.
In a four-pass design, the hot gases are
rerouted through second, third, and fourth sets
of tubes.
A boiler with multiple gas passes is more
efficient than one with single gas passes.
 Large surface area of the tubes is to remove as
much heat as possible from the gases before
they exit into the stack.
Efficiency is further increased by adopting
Baffles( to create more turbulence)
Fire-tube boilers are designed to work with
large water content, and a large amount of
floor space.
The boilers take a long time to produce
steam from a cold start and are, therefore,
not suitable for intermittent use.
However, fire-tube boilers are reliable and
capable of producing high quality steam.
They have a large water capacity and
can handle variable loads with almost no
variation in steam pressure.
 WATER-TUBE BOILERS
In water-tube boilers, the combustion
gases pass around tubes filled with water.
The tubes are interconnected on the
feed side and the steam side.
The water-tube boiler is considered as a safety
boiler because there is less chance of a serious
accident when one of the pipes inside the boiler
bursts.
The explosion would be negligible compared to
what would happen if the large drum of a fire-
tube boiler would fail.
Water-tube boilers can normally operate at
higher pressures than fire-tube boilers. In some
applications, pressures of 10,342 to 13,789 k Pa
are used.
The water tubes contain steam and steam and
water mixtures, while the hot combustion
products pass around the tubes.
Water Tube boilers are faster than fire-tube
boilers to come up to full pressure because they
contain a relatively small amount of water.
The design of water-tube boilers allows for the
production of intermittent and superheated
steam.
Water-tube boilers can have more than one
drum.
Water-tube boilers can deliver steam from
4500 to 61,000 kg/hr.
 BOILER EFFICIENCY
In the case of a boiler, the efficiency is to
measure how well the chemical energy in the fuel
is converted to heat in steam.
Boiler efficiency and fuel usage are two
important indicators of boilers performance.
 FUEL -TO-STEAM EFFICIENCY
Fuel-to-steam efficiency is the most acceptable
efficiency rating used for boilers.
There are two ways to calculate this efficiency
according to ASME Power Test Code.
The first method is to calculate the percentage
ratio of energy output divided by energy input.
The second method is to calculate the amount
of energy loss through radiation and convection
as well as loss in the flue, and then subtract it
from the total energy.
The values are related to the total energy input
100%.
Factors Affecting Combustion Efficiency
Combustion efficiency gives an indication of the
effectiveness of the burner.
It describes the ability of the burner to burn the
fuel so that all the chemical energy is released. It
is the first step that dictates the overall efficiency.
1/ Oxygen Requirement
A burner of good design will be able to give
complete combustion with only 15 to 20% excess
air.
2CHOS + 3/2 O2 = CO2 + H2 O +2 SO2
The amount of each combustion product formed
will depend on the amounts of the atoms in the
fuel.
The composition of the fuel will also dictate the
oxygen requirement.
Any lack in oxygen will obviously cause the
formation of less oxidized combustion
products, leading to loss of energy in the flue
gases.
For this reason, excess air is used to provide a
safe oxygen excess.
When high excess air is used, perfect
combustion is assured, but the heat energy
will be wasted on heating the excess air rather
than the water.
The high volume of air will also reduce
residence time of the hot gases inside the heat
transfer areas and, thereby, increase the stack
loss.
2/ Heat Transfer Surfaces
Boiler efficiency is a function of design,.
All must be kept in a condition that will
promote heat transfer rather than hinder
it.
It is important that the heat transfer surfaces be
free from deep soot on the fireside and free
from scale on the waterside.
A 0.5-mm layer of scale can cause a drop of up
to 11% efficiency
3/ Makeup Water
Preheating the makeup water can increase boiler
efficiency.
It is common practice to return the hot condensate
to boiler as makeup water.
Makeup water can also be preheated in the stack
at a small additional equipment cost.
4/ Stack Temperature
The amount of heat that is carried away in the
flue gases is called stack loss.
Limited amount of heat should be lost in
the stack.
5/ Radiation Loss
Inadequate insulation of the boiler and bad
furnace design are the major causes of
high radiation loss.
Fire-tube boilers usually have higher
radiation loss than water-tube boilers.
6/ The Removal and Prevention of Scales
The removal and prevention of scale is achieved
by blow down, chemical removal, and water
treatment.
Soot and ash are removed daily with various
mechanical and manual means, including brushes
and steam and air soot blowers.
BOILER BLOWDOWN
When water boils, only the water vaporizes,
leaving the soluble solids in a more
concentrated form in the remaining water.
Makeup water is added, with soluble solids in it, to
compensate for un returned condensate and thus
increasing the concentration.
The boiler is designed to efficiently remove
the vapor, thereby causing a rapid increase in
the soluble solids concentration.
At sufficiently high levels, the soluble solids
will cause problems, and the water in the
boiler will partially drain i.e. volume of water
decreases.
This process is called blowdown.
The purpose of blowdown is to decrease
the amount of solids and sludge in the
boiler water to increase volume available
for water.
The number of times that blowdown takes place
depends upon:-
1. The water treatment for makeup water
2. The amount of makeup water, which is
dependent on the amount of condensate return
3. The type of boiler
4. The operating pressure of the boiler
Soluble solid should never exceed a concentration
of about 10,000 mg/l.
WATER TREATMENT
Many dissolved substances that are found in
water cause problems in boilers.
Alkaline salts of calcium and magnesium can
cause caustic embrittlement that can lead to
metal failure.
The water hardness caused by the salts of
calcium and magnesium can be removed by
hot or cold water precipitation using calcium
hydroxide,- (Hydrated lime) and sodium
carbonate (soda ash) or sodium hydroxide
(caustic soda) and sodium carbonate.
STEAM PRESSURE
Low-pressure boilers operate at pressures
up to 103.4 kPa gauge pressure and are
typically used for heating applications.
High-pressure boilers are typically used for
process loads and can have an operating
pressure of 517 to 4825.8 kPa.
For superheated steam the increase in energy
associated with each kg of steam causes an
increase in enthalpy.
If very high pressures or superheated steam is
required in an operation, it is best to install a
water-tube boiler.
 FUELS
Fuel cost is a large percentage of the overall costs
in any manufacturing plant.
Fuel such as wood and coal were used, but in most
industries the stringent pollution control measures
forced the use of natural gas and light liquid fuel.
Fuel Oil
The advantages of fuel oil over other fuels are as
follows:
1. It is easy to adapt a boiler to use different fuel
oils.
2. Handling requires less manual labor when
compared to solid fuel.
3. Heating is more uniform.
4. The system requires less maintenance.
5. It eliminates dust and ash.
6. Storage and handling systems are simple.
The oil heating value varies from 38.2 MJ/dm3 for
light oil to 42.7 MJ/dm 3 for heavy oil (137,061 to
153,207 Btu/gal).
High-viscosity oil is the most economical to use,
but it requires preheating to reduce the viscosity
to ensure satisfactory atomization in the burner.
In some industries, part of the waste can be used
as fuel in the boiler.
This practice will reduce fuel cost and save on
waste disposal.
The waste streams are used in conjunction with
standard fuels to ensure operating flexibility.
 Gaseous Fuels
Gas is a clean and convenient fuel. Gas and oil have
no problem with the disposal of ash.
For some industries the use natural gas (64.5%) as
the preferred energy source, followed by coal
(29.5%) and oil (6%).
Energy values for some gaseous fuels
 Solid Fuels
In many industries, waste is burned to supply heat.
However, coal is the solid fuel most often used in
boilers.
There are three distinct forms of coal: (1)
anthracite, (2) bituminous, and (3) lignite.
.
 Stack Emissions
The most important gaseous pollutants
generated by burning are nitrogen oxides and
sulfur oxides plus particulate matter and
unburned fuel.
Nitrogen oxides are (NO and NO2), while sulfur
oxides are (SO2and SO3).
Nitrogen Oxides
Nitrogen oxides are formed during
combustion, when oxygen combines with
atmospheric nitrogen at high temperatures.
A high oxygen concentration in the flame
will cause a high concentration of nitrogen
oxides.
 For this reason, the burning is staged so
that the first part of the burning takes
place in a fuel-rich primary zone.
Since the temperature is below 1810 K, the
formation of nitrogen oxides will be limited even
if sufficient oxygen is available.
The staged burners can reduce nitrogen oxide
emissions by as much as 30 to 60%.
Another approach is to recirculate the flue gas into
the burner, thereby causing lower temperature
burning that will reduce the formation of nitrogen
oxides.
 Sulfur Oxides
Sulfur in compounds is released during
burning, and the sulfur is converted to sulfur
dioxide and sulfur trioxide.
This conversion occurs independent of
combustion conditions.
The sulfur oxides will combine with water to
form sulfurous and sulfuric acid.
To prevent condensation of these compounds
in the stack, a flue discharge temperature of
about 420 K has to be maintained.
The pollution can be limited if fuel with low
sulfur content is used.
Sulfur can be removed from flue gases by
reacting the gases with limestone slurry.
 Carbon Monoxide
During the oxidation of all hydrocarbons, CO
is formed before CO2 as the complete
oxidation product.
The oxidation reaction will not go to completion
when the temperature is too low or the amount of
oxygen is limited therefore the emission of CO can
increase substantially.
Heat Transfer in Boiler
Heat Transfer in Boilers
Heat is transferred from the hot products of
combustion to the boiler heating surfaces
through the plate and tube walls and to the
water by various mechanisms which involve
conduction, radiation and convection.
Conduction
The rate at which heat is transferred by
conduction through a substance without mass
transfer is given by the Fourier Law.
This states that the heat flow rate per net area,
or heat flux, is proportional to the temperature
gradient in the direction of heat flow.
For a plate of area A (m2 ), thickness e (m) and
with hot and cold face temperatures of T1 and T2
(°C), respectively, the normal heat flux φ and
heat transfer rate Q are given by:
φ = Q /A =k (T1− T2)/ e (W/m2)
Where k = thermal conductivity (W/m K).
Thermal radiation takes place by the emission of
electromagnetic waves, at the velocity of light,
from all bodies at temperatures above absolute
zero.
Radiation
The heat flux from an ideal or ‘black body’
radiating surface is proportional to the
fourth power of the absolute temperature
of the surface.
The constant of proportionality is the
Stefan–Boltzmann constant, which has a
value of 5.6696 × 108(W/m2K4).
Convection
Convective heat transmission occurs within a
fluid, and between a fluid and a surface, by virtue
of relative movement of the fluid particles.
Heat exchange between fluid particles by mixing
and between fluid particles and a surface is by
conduction.
At a convection heat transfer surface the heat
flux is related to the temperature difference
between fluid and surface by a heat transfer
coefficient.
This is defined by Newton’s law of cooling:
φ = Q /A = hc Tm
Where φ = heat flux (W/m2),
Q = heat transfer rate (W),
 A = surface area (m2),
Tm = mean temperature difference
between fluid and surface (K),
hc = convective heat transfer coefficient
(W/m2 K).
In applying the correlations concept of
logarithmic mean temperature difference across
the boundary layer is used.
For a boiler section, or pass, this is given by:
Tm = (T1 − Tw) − (T2 − Tw)/ ln ((T1 − Tw)/(T2 − Tw)) (K)
Where T1 = inlet gas temperature (°C),
T2 = outlet gas temperature (°C),
Tw = tube wall temperature (°C).
The difference in temperature between the tube
wall and the water is small, typically less than 10
K in the convection section.
ENERGY ASSOCIATED WITH STEAM
Steam is a good heating agent because it carries
a great amount of heat per kilogram.
At atmospheric pressure,
1 kg of steam will release 2252.4 kJ (2134.9 Btu)
when it condenses.
When energy is added to water, the temperature
of the water will increase until it reaches boiling
point. When more energy is added, the water will
change into vapor..
Vaporization takes place when the vapor
pressure inside the water exceeds atmospheric
pressure above the water surface
Vaporization causes water to undergo a
large change in volume.
A liter (kg) of water at atmospheric pressure
(101.3 k Pa) will occupy a volume of 1.65 m3
At increased pressure of 344.7 k Pa, it will
occupy 0.19 m3.
One kg of water will stay at 100°C while it absorbs
more energy.
The temperature will stay constant until another
2257.15 kJ of latent heat energy has been
absorbed with no change in temperature but with
a large change in total energy.
Q = (mL) joule
At this point, the water absorbed a total of
2675.85 kJ/kg.
We need to add only 2 kJ of energy to increase
the temperature 1°C beyond 100°C.
The steam, which is now at a temperature
greater than 100°C, is called superheated.
When this 1 kg of saturated steam condenses
back to water, all of the 2257.15 kJ of energy
will be transferred to the condensing surface.
This property makes steam a particularly good
heating medium. All values given above are
for atmospheric pressure.
All the values, including temperature, will
change when there is a change in pressure.
The relationship of pressure, temperature,
specific volume, latent heat, and others have
been calculated and are given in the steam
tables .
EXAMPLE
An electric kettle was half full of water when it
was switched on and allowed to boil.
While the water was boiling steadily at 100°C, 2 l
of water at 20°C was added to the kettle. It took
5 min before the water was boiling again.
1. What is the power of the heating element in
the kettle? The specific heat capacity for water
is 4.187 kJ/(kg K).
2. How much water will vaporize when the
kettle is left to boil for 10 min? The specific
latent heat of vaporization of water is 2257.15
kJ/kg.
The water that was in the kettle was brought
back to the same temperature that it had
before the cold water was added.
So, all energy was used to heat the 2 l of water
through 80°C.
Since we know the time and the specific
latent heat of water, we can calculate the
mass.
PROPERTIES OF STEAM
Steam can exist as saturated vapor, vapor–liquid
mixtures, and superheated steam.
All three forms are important in all processing
industry.
Wet Steam
Steam can contain small droplets of water.
This water has not undergone phase
change and therefore does not have the
additional energy associated with it.
Therefore wet steam has less amount of
energy associated with it.
The steam quality is given as the percentage of a
vapor–liquid mixture in the form of saturated
vapor.
For example, if 1 kg of 95% quality steam is used
at zero gauge pressure for heating, it will give up
only 0.95 × 2257.15 kJ or 2144.3 kJ upon
condensing.
Superheated Steam
When steam contains more energy than
what is required to fully vaporize all the
moisture, it is superheated.
The number of degrees in excess of the
vaporization temperature is the degrees of
superheat.
Increasing the temperature of saturated vapor
produces superheated steam.
It is produced by passing dry saturated steam
through specially heated coils on its way to the
steam system.
These superheating coils are usually located in
the top of the combustion space of the boiler.
The temperature will rise when heat is added to
steam to produce superheated steam.
At atmospheric pressure, 1093 J (0.47 Btu/lb)
are absorbed per kg of steam, per degree of
temperature increase.