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Abnormal (excessive)
accumulation of fluid inside the
pleural space.
Pleural Effusion
PLEURAL EFFUSION
ETIOLOGY. PATHOGENESIS
EXUDATE
TRANSUDATE
Mechanisms:
o Increased in hydrostatic pressure (congestive heart failure);
o Decreased oncotic pressure (hypoalbuminemia);
o Greater negative intrapleural pressure (acute atelectasis).
ETIOLOGY. PATHOGENESIS
TRANSUDATE – causes:
o Congestive heart failure (majority of cases);
o Cirrhosis with ascites;
o Nephrotic syndrome;
o Myxedema;
o Meigs`s syndrome (right side pleurisy, ascitis, ovarian
cancer);
o Acute atelectasis;
o Constrictive pericarditis;
o Superior vena cava obstruction (mediastinal tumors).
CLINICAL FINDINGS
SYMPTOMS:
Pleuritic pain, pleural rub, irritative dry cough (a dry
pleurisy often precedes the development of effusion);
Dyspnea (its severity increases with the size of the
effusion);
General symptoms (due to the cause):
Fever, night sweat, loss of weight, loss of appetite.
CLINICAL FINDINGS
SIGNS:
INSPECTION
o limitation of movements on the affected side
PALPATION
o large effusions shift the mediastinum to the opposite side (if it is
not fixed by malignancy)
o decreased vocal tactile fremitus
PERCUSSION
o basal stony dullness rising to the axilla (Damoisseau line)
o hyper-resonance above the level of effusion (compensatory
emphysema)
AUSCULTATION
o Absent or reduced breath sounds over the area of the effusion
o Bronchial breathing and egophony may be heard over the upper
level of effusion
Physical findings are absent if less than 200-300 ml of pleural fluid is present.
Pleural Effusion
LABORATORY FINDINGS
CHEST X- RAY
obliteration of the costophrenic angle by a homogenous,
intense opacity rising laterally to the axilla;
mediastinal displacement to the opposite side;
may indicate the possible etiology of the pleurisy
(tuberculosis, lung cancer, lymphoma) showing the
primary mediastinal lesion.
EMPYEMA
o Is an exudative pleural effusion caused by direct
infection (usually bacterial) of the pleural space (frank
pus pleural fluid);
o The main causes: bacterial pneumonia and lung abscess;
o Pleural fluid PH < 7.2;
o Milky in appearance pleural fluid, clearing the
supernatant after centrifugation.
OTHER MAJOR TYPES OF PLEURAL EFFUSION
HEMOTHORAX
o Is the presence of frank blood in the pleural space;
o If the hematocrit of pleural fluid is more than 50% of
the hematocrit of peripheral blood, hemothorax is
present;
o Causes: chest trauma, cancer, or pulmonary embolism
(less commonly).
HEMOTHORAX
OTHER MAJOR TYPES OF PLEURAL EFFUSION
Specific indications:
spontaneous or iatrogenic pneumothorax;
hemothorax;
penetrating chest trauma;
complicated parapneumonic effusion or empyema;
chylothorax;
pleurodesis of symptomatic pleural effusions.
Chest computed tomographic scan with a “split pleural sign” (arrow),
seen in empyema. This patient needed drainage with tube thoracostomy.
PLEURAL SCLEROSIS
is considered for patients with uncontrolled and
recurrent symptomatic malignant effusions, and
rarely, in cases of benign effusions after failure of
medical treatment.