BOX JACKING

EXPLANATION
• It is the process in which a pre-cast R.C.C box or a rigid box is

pushed into the soil with the help of hydraulic jacks

• It is non-intrusive method beneath the existing surface.

• It is more often used when a subway or a aqueduct or a

underground structure is to be constructed.

• It enables the traffic flow without disruption.

 R.C.C BOX JACKING
• First the box section is designed and cast at the site or can be

transported to the site according to the requirement.

• The foundation boxes are jacked into the ground designed to carry

the dead and the live loads.

• Then the high capacity jacks are placed at the back and it pushes

the box into the ground.

• A purpose designed tunneling shield is provided in the front end.

 R.C.C BOX JACKING Cont…

• Then the box is jacked carefully through the earth.

• Excavation and jacking are done in small increments in

advance.

• Measures should be taken to prevent the soil being dragged

towards the box.

R.C.C BOX JACKING
ARCHED JACKING
 THRUST BORING METHOD
• It is a process of simultaneously jacking the pipe through the
earth while removing the earth inside the box by means of a
rotating auger.
• Unstable conditions- the end of auger is kept retracted inside
the encasement so as not to cause voids.
• Stable conditions- the auger can be successfully extended
beyond the encasement.
• This can be successfully used in any kind of soil conditions.
 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN
JACKING
• Settlement of the above ground.

• Seepage of ground water.

• Caving in of soil etc.

 FREEZING OF GROUND
• This method is used when we encounter the problem of
ground water seepage and settlement of ground.

• In this method a brine solution is continuously passed through

the pipes fixed in the soil.

• The temperature of the brine would be -30°c.

• So when this brine solution is circulated through these pipes it

freezes the ground and the ground behaves like an ice block.
 FREEZING OF GROUND Cont…
• The spacing of the freezing pipes will vary according to the

type of soil, its permeability and other factors.

• Generally it is kept at a spacing of 1.2 m

 PROBLEMS IN FREEZING

• The main problem in the freezing method is the

UPHEAVING of the above ground.

• To avoid the upheavement problem we should be careful

in the ground freezing process and the temperature of the
brine solution.
 CASE STUDY - SOUTHERN BOSTON
PIERS TRANSIT WAY

• The carriageway has to go

beneath – a Russian

building,100 year old

• 2m thick soil was frozen.

• Under pinning was also done

using mini piles.

PLAN OF THE RUSSIAN BUILDING
 ADVANTAGES
• Timely completion of project.

• No disruption of traffic.

• No need to divert the traffic.

DISADVANTAGES
• Cost of project increases.

• Skilled personnel required.

• Safety precautions to be done properly.

PIPE JACKING
 ABOUT THE TECHNIQUE

• It is generally referred as “Micro tunneling”

• Pipes are pushed through the ground behind the shield
using powerful jacks.
• Simultaneously excavation takes place within the shield.
• This process is continued until the pipeline is completed.
• The method provides a flexible, structural, watertight,
finished pipeline as the tunnel is excavated.
 ABOUT THE TECHNIQUE
Cont…
• No theoretical limit to the length of individual pipelines.
• Pipes range from 150mm to 3000mm diameter can be
installed in straight line or in curvature.
• Thrust wall is provided for the reaction of the jacks.
• In case of poor soil, the thrust wall may punch inside the
soil.
• Then piles or ground anchoring methods can be used.
 PROCEDURE

• The thrust pit and the reception pit are excavated at the
required places.
• Then the thrust wall is set up in the thrust pit according to
the requirement.
• In case of mechanized excavations, a very large pit is
required.
• But in case of manual excavation, a small pit is enough.
• Thrust ring is provided to ensure the even distribution of
stress along the circumference of the pipe.
 PROCEDURE Cont…

• The number of jacks vary upon the frictional resistance of the

soil, strength of pipes etc.,
• The size of the reception pit is to be big enough to receive the
jacking shield.
• To maintain the accuracy of alignment a steer able shield is
used during the pipe jacking.
• In case of small and short distance excavations, ordinary
survey method is sufficient.
• But in case of long excavations, remote sensing and other
techniques can be used.
GENERAL ARRANGEMENTS
PIPE JACKING SETUP
THRUST SETUP
 COMPUTER GUIDANCE SYSTEM

• The computer system enables

us to control the work
remotely.
ADVANTAGES

• It avoids the excavation of trenches. So it is also called as

“Trench less Technique”.
• There won’t be any leak problems in the future.
• Timely finish of projects.
DISADVANTAGES

• Very costly method.

• Skilled personnel is required.
DIAPHRAGM WALLS
 DIAPHRAGM WALLS
• Diaphragm walls are underground structural elements
commonly used for retention systems and permanent
foundation walls.

• Diaphragm walls provide a water tight barrier and are

constructed with a minimum back slope subsidence.

• They are formed from reinforced concrete and are constructed

as normal cast-in-place walls with support, which become part
of the main structure.

• They can also be used as deep groundwater barriers.

 SLURRY TRENCH METHOD
• The slurry trench method involves the excavation of alternating
panels along the proposed wall, using bentonite slurry to prevent
the sides of the excavation from collapsing.
• The slurry trench technique was developed in Europe and has
been used in the United States since the 1940's.
• The technique involves excavating a narrow trench that is kept
full of an engineered fluid or slurry.
• The slurry exerts hydraulic pressure against the trench walls and
acts as shoring to prevent collapse.
• Slurry trench excavations can be constructed in all types of soil,
even below the ground water table.
 BASEMENT TOP-DOWN
CONSTRUCTION USING DIAPHRAGM
WALLS
 PROCEDURE
• The panel dimensions 50 to 100 cm thick and up to 7m height,
extending to the excavation bottom.
• The installation starts with the construction of shallow concrete
or steel guide walls.
• The excavation is then made using special equipment, such as the
thin-grab clamshell.
• Bentonite slurry is then pumped into the trench to provide
temporary support and a prefabricated reinforcing cage is
lowered in.
• The bentonite slurry is then replaced by concrete and the
sequence proceeds onto the next panel.
GRAB USED FOR EXCAVATION
 DIAPHRAGM WALLS

• Diaphragm walls of shallow depths are often left

unsupported since they are classed as semi rigid
structures.
• However for deeper excavations support is required to
restrict lateral deflections.
• Diaphragm walls are ideal for soft clays and loose sands
below the water table where there is a need to control
lateral movements.
REINFORCEMENT
 DIAPHRAGM WALL
REINFORCEMENT & CONCRETING
FINISHED WALL AFTER
EXCAVATION
 APPLICATIONS

• As permanent and temporary foundation walls for deep

basements.
• In earth retention schemes for highway and tunnel projects.
• As permanent walls for deep shafts for tunnel access.
• As permanent cut-off walls through the core of earth dams.
• In congested areas for retention systems and permanent
foundation walls.
• Deep ground water barriers through and under dams.
 BENEFITS OF DIAPHRAGM WALLS

• Can be installed through virtually all soil conditions, to any

plan geometry and to considerable depths.
• Can be constructed ahead of time and independent of other
site activities.
• Can be constructed in relatively low headroom and in areas
of restricted access walls can be quickly formed several
hundred feet deep and through rock, with good control
over geometry and continuity.
 DISADVANTAGES

• They are relatively costly.

• They are also unsuited to strong soils conditions where
penetration is slow and difficult due to the use of the slurry
trench method.
CAISSON FOUNDATION
 INTRODUCTION

• The term caisson has been derived from the French word
‘CAISSEE’, meaning BOX.
• It can be round or rectangle in plan.
• It is commonly used where foundation under water is done.
• It can sunk from surface of either land or water to the desired
depth.
 TYPES OF CAISSON
• Open caisson
• Box caisson
• Pneumatic caisson
 OPEN CAISSON
• Also called as well caisson.
• They are open at both the ends.
• These are boxes of timber, steel or R.C or masonry.
• Small caisson consists of one opening or well, while larger
one contain a series of wells.
 PROCEDURE
• The caisson is cast and flatted to the site and sunk.
• When it reaches the required depth concrete is deposited
through water to some depth.
• After the concrete gets hardened, the water will be pumped
out.
• The caisson is finally filled completely with concrete.
 BOX CAISSON

• Also called as Floating caisson.

• They are open at top and closed at bottom.
• They can be made of steel, R.C or timber.
 PROCEDURE

• The caisson is built on land, then launched and brought to the

site where they have to be sunk.
• They are filled with concrete or stone masonry and sunk until
it rests on the river bed, which has been prepared to receive
it, or on a pile cluster to form a lower part of a bridge pier.
TOWING OF CAISSON
 APPLICATIONS OF BOX CAISSON

• Bearing stratum is available at shallow depth

• Loads are not heavy
• For wharfs and break waters
 PNEUMATIC CAISSON
• “Pneumatic" means "with air" “Caisson" means "a box“
• The pneumatic caisson method works on the same principle
as a cup pressed into some water upside down
 EXECUTION OF THE PNEUMATIC
CAISSON
1.Preparation of the ground for installation
We level surface of working site where the caisson
is to be installed and improve the surface conditions
so that appropriate supporting force can be supplied.
2.Construction of working chamber
We construct a working chamber at a bottom of
the caisson, in which earth is excavated and removed.
The chamber is pressurized to the same pressure as the
ground water pressure to make it watertight
 EXECUTION OF THE PNEUMATIC
3. Rigging
CAISSON
Cylindrical steel shafts are used for workers to
enter or exit the pressurized working chamber and to
remove excavated earth. These shafts have locks (for
both men and materials) to regulate the difference
between the atmospheric pressure on the ground and
the pressure in the chamber. Installation of such
locks and shafts is called "rigging work".
4. Repeated excavation to sink & construct
caisson
We excavate and construct the caisson every 4m
height, and repeatedly sink it by excavating the
ground and constructing it to the desired depth.
 EXECUTION OF THE PNEUMATIC
CAISSON

5. Testing the bearing capacity of soil

After the caisson has sunk to the specified depth,
we test and confirm that if sufficient bearing
capacity of soil has been obtained.
6. After concrete filling for working
chamber
After confirming the bearing capacity, we remove
equipments in the working chamber and fill
concrete, which means completion of works.
1.PREPARATION OF THE GROUND
FOR INSTALLATION
2.CONSTRUCTION OF WORKING
CHAMBER
3.RIGGING
4a.REPEATED EXCAVATING TO SINK
AND CONSTRUCT THE CAISSON
4b.REPEATED EXCAVATING TO SINK
AND CONSTRUCT THE CAISSON
5.TESTING THE BEARING CAPACITY OF
SOIL
6.AFTER CONCRETE FILLING FOR
WORKING CHAMBER
 APPLICATIONS

The Pneumatic Caisson Method is used for many

different structures:
• Foundations of road and railway bridges
• Subway tunnels facilities
• Basements and foundations buildings
• Water supply and sewage facilities
• Other facilities (e.g. garbage pits)
FOUNDATIONS OF ROAD AND
RAILWAY BRIDGES
BRIDGES CONSTRUCTED AT THE
WATER DEPTH OF 50 TO 60 M.
SUBWAY TUNNELS FACILITIES
 BASEMENT AND FOUNDATION
BUILDINGS
(Eg. UNDERGROUND PARKING ZONES)
 WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE
FACILITIES
(Eg. TREATMENT PUMP BUILDING)
OTHER FACILITIES (E.G. GARBAGE PITS)
 OTHER TYPES

There are few more methods in caisson foundation.

• Jacking caisson method
• Space System Caisson
 JACKING CAISSON METHOD

Jacking caisson method is to sink large scale caisson thruster

into ground by using jacks with rods connected to earth anchor.
 JACKING CAISSON METHOD

Intake shaft of 14 meter ø. is thrusted in Dimension of 26x19 meter is sunk by 8

the ground at 50.7 meter below by using jacks in the ground depth 18.5 meter,
12 jacks of 240 ton thrust force. The while inside of caisson is excavated by
caisson itself is constructed on the ground clam shell
by each rot of 5 meter.
 SPACE SYSTEM CAISSON
• The gravel is filled between wall
surface and ground, and the skin
friction resistance is reduced.
• The SS caisson method gently and
accurately install the caisson in non-
loading.
• The problem of the conventional
open caisson method is solved.
FEATURES OF THE SS CAISSON METHOD

• It is gently installed only at the dead weight at the good

accuracy.
• Subsidence and collapse of the ground in the circumference
are not caused.
• It is applicable for various geology.
COFFERDAMS
COFFERDAM
 DEFINITION

A cofferdam is a temporary structure designed to keep

water and/or soil out of the excavation in which a bridge pier
or other structure is built.
When construction must take place below the water level,
a cofferdam is built to give workers a dry work environment.
Sheet piling is driven around the work site, seal concrete is
placed into the bottom to prevent water from seeping in from
underneath the sheet piling, and the water is pumped out
The word "cofferdam" comes from "coffer" meaning
box, in other words a dam in the shape of a box.
 TYPES

• Braced
• Earth-Type
• Timber Crib
• Double-Walled Sheet Pile
• Cellular
 1.BRACED COFFERDAMS
• Formed from a single wall of sheet piling
• Driven into the ground to form a box
• around the excavation site
• The "box" is then braced on the inside
• Interior is dewatered
• Primarily used for bridge piers in
• shallow water (30 - 35 ft depth)
 2. EARTH-TYPE
• It is the simplest type of cofferdam.
• It consists of an earth bank with a clay core or vertical sheet
piling enclosing the excavation.
• It is used for low-level waters with low velocity and easily
scoured by water rising over the top.
 3. TIMBER CRIB
• Constructed on land and floated into place.
• Lower portion of each cell is matched with contour of river
bed.
• It uses rock ballast and soil to decrease seepage and sink into
place, also known as “Gravity Dam”.
• It usually consists of 12’x12’ cells and is used in rapid
currents or on rocky river beds.
• It must be properly designed to resist lateral forces such as
tipping / overturning and sliding
 4. DOUBLE-WALLED SHEET PILE

• They are double wall cofferdams comprising two parallel

rows of sheet piles driven into the ground and connected
together by a system of tie rods at one or more levels.
• The space between the walls is generally filled with granular
material such as sand, gravel or broken rock.
 5. CELLULAR

• Cellular cofferdams are used only in those circumstances

where the excavation size precludes the use of cross-
excavation bracing.
• In this case, the cofferdam must be stable by virtue of its own
resistance to lateral forces.
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
• Scouring or undermining by rapidly
• flowing water
• Stability against overturning or tilting
• Upward forces on outside edge due to tilting
• Stability against vertical shear
• Effects of forces resulting from:
• Ice, Wave, Water, Active Earth and
• Passive Earth Pressures
 ADVANTAGES
• Allow excavation and construction of structures in otherwise
poor environment .
• Provides safe environment to work
• Contractors typically have design responsibility
• Steel sheet piles are easily installed and removed
• Materials can typically be reused on
• other projects
 INSTALLATION

Items needed for installation:

•Pile driving hammer
•Vibratory or Impact
•Crane of sufficient size
•Steel sheet piles are typically used
•H-piles and/or wide-flange beams for wales and stringers
•Barges may be required
 COMPONENTS

•Sheet piling
•Bracing frame
•Concrete seal
•Bearing piles
 DESCRIPTION
The typical cofferdam, such as a bridge pier, consists of sheet
piles set around a bracing frame and driven into the soil
sufficiently far to develop vertical and lateral support and to cut
off the flow of soil and, in some cases the flow of water.
 DESCRIPTION

The structure inside may be founded directly on rock or firm

soil or may require pile foundations. In the latter case, these
generally extend well below the cofferdam.
In order to dewater the cofferdam, the bottom must be stable
and able to resist hydrostatic uplift. Placement of an underwater
concrete seal course is the fastest and most common method.
 CONSTRUCTION
An underwater concrete seal course may be placed prior to
dewatering in order to seal off the water, resist its pressure, and
also to act as a slab to brace against the inward movement of the
sheet piles in order to mobilize their resistance to uplift under the
hydrostatic pressure.
 CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE
For a typical cofferdam, such as for a bridge pier, the
construction procedure follow the listed pattern.
1. Pre-dredge to remove soil or soft sediments and level the
area of the cofferdam.
 CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE

2. Drive temporary support piles

3. Temporarily erect bracing frame on the support piles.
 CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE

4. Set steel sheet piles, starting at all four corners and meeting
at the center of each side
5. Drive sheet piles to grade.
6. Block between bracing frame and sheets, and provide ties
for sheet piles at the top as necessary.
 CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE

7. Excavate inside the grade or slightly below grade, while

leaving the cofferdam full of water.
 CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE

8. Drive bearing piles.

9. Place rock fill as a leveling and support
course.
 CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE
10. Place tremie concrete seal.
 CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE
Tremie concrete seal.
 CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE
Tremie concrete seal.
 CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE
11. Check blocking between bracing and sheets.
12. Dewater.
13. Construct new structure.
COFFERDAMS
 CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE

13. Construct new structure.

14. Flood cofferdam.
 CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE
15. Remove sheet piles.
16. Remove bracing.
17. Backfill.
 WALE AND STRUT SYSTEM

Installation of Wale and Strut System for Framework

 WALE AND STRUT SYSTEM

Installation of Wale and Strut System for Template

 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS
In cofferdam construction, safety is a paramount concern, since
workers will be exposed to the hazard of flooding and collapse.
Safety requirements are:
• Good design
• Proper construction
• Verification that structure is constructed as per plan
• Monitoring the behavior of cofferdam and its surrounding
• Provision of adequate access
• Light and ventilation
• Attention to safe practices on the part of all workers and
supervisors
TRADITIONAL SHEET PILE SHAPES
TYPES OF INTERLOCKS
 CABLE
ANCHORING
Introduction:
Excavations and other engineering constructions in the ground
are central to many civil and mining projects.

Ground reinforcement includes among other methods, the

techniques of ground anchoring, cable bolting and rock bolting. Ground
anchors tend to be longer with higher capacity, and are usually
associated with civil infrastructure projects.

Rock bolts tend to be shortest with lowest capacities .

Cable bolts are used in stability problems that lie between the
two, and are commonly used in mining engineering.
 Anchors in rocks:
In the majority of moderately weak to strong rocks , rotary or rotary
percussive open hole drilling with air flush , followed by normal tremie grouting
techniques , will achieve the required grout/rock bond capacity.
Where fissures or voids are detected by loss of flush, by water ingress,
by water testing, or inability to maintain a head of grout within the bore, then pre-
grouting operations or alternatively pressure grouting operations may be required.
Normally cement grouts are injected but if fissures are known to be
wide, sanded mixes may be used.
In coarse grained weak rocks similar techniques or alternatively
rotary water flush drilling can be used and in most conditions a reasonable
anchorage capacity can be obtained.
 Anchors in clay
• In order to enhance the capacity of the anchorage within
the normal range of fixed lengths, either under reaming or soil
fracturing systems have been employed
• More recently, the single bore multiple anchor system has
been allowed efficient use of non-enhanced bore holes and
attained loads of 3500kn.
• The fracturing of soil prior to tendon installation,
generally involves a larger diameter steel manchette, which
after treatment remains in-situ.
• Treatment may be carried out over a 2 or 3 day period
prior to tendon installation, by repeatedly injecting grout
through manchette valves at 1/2 m centers in the fixed length.
• The anchor tendon is then, after pre grouting treatment,
installed and grouted within the large tube.
• The tube must efficiently transfer the
entire load from anchor tendon and internal
grout to the external grout and then into the
ground.
• It must not exhibit creep losses and it
must not in anyway degrade (by corrosion)
in any way such that there is a reduction in
bond capacity or performance within the
grout body which may reduce the capacity of
the anchor within its intended lifetime
 Anchors in granular materials:
• Anchors are in the majority of instances installed in granular deposits
by drive drilling with a knock-off bit or by use of duplex drilling
techniques.

• Drive drilling involves the percussion driving of a strong casing with

a conical lead bit resulting lateral soil replacement and no flush recovery.
The lead bit is knocked off the casing allowing tendon installation and
pressure grouting during withdrawal. There are limitations in the depth
penetrable.

• Duplex drilling involves the advancement of both drill rods and drill
casing, utilizing casing sizes of the 80 to 150mm ranges. Either air or
water flush or augers can be used, although bit wear and casing wear
may well be considerably higher without lubrications and cooling by
water.
GROUTING
 GROUTING
• Grouting is a process of ground improvement attained by
injecting fluid like
• material into subsurface soil or rock.
• Grouting is the injection specially formulated cement of stable
suspensions
• or liquid into pores, fissures or voids, or the jetting of cement
mixtures at
• high flow rate and pressure into the soil to create soil-
cement to increase
• the strength.
 APPLICATIONS

• Producing mass concrete structures and piles

• Fixing ground anchors for sheet pile walls, concrete pile walls,
retaining walls tunnels etc
• Repairing a ground underneath a formation or cracks and
structural
• Defects on building masonry or pavement.
• Fixing the tendons in prestressed post tensioned concrete
• Filling the void between the lining and rock face in tunnel
works
 GROUTING MATERIAL TYPES
(a) Suspension grouts: These are multi-phase systems capable of
forming sub systems after being subjected to natural sieving
processes, with chemical properties which must be carefully
scrutinized so as to ensure that they do not militate against controlled
properties of setting and strength. Water in association with cement,
lime, soil, etc., constitute suspensions. Emulsion (asphalt or bitumen)
with water is a two-phase system which is also included under
suspension.
(b) Solution grouts: These are intimate one-phase system retaining
an originally designed chemical balance until completion of the
relevant reactions. Solutions in which the solute is present in the
colloidal state are known as colloidal solutions. Chemical grouts fall
into this category.
 MATERIALS USED FOR GROUTING

• Cement and water

• Cement, rock flour and water
• Cement, clay and water
• Cement clay, sand and water
• Asphalt
• Clay and water
• Chemicals
 ADMIXTURES
Common admixtures used with cement grouts:
1. Calcium chloride ]
2. Sodium hydroxide ]-----------------for accelerating setting time
3. Sodium silicate ]
4. Gypsum ]
5. Lime sugar ]----------------------for retarding setting time.
6. Sodium tannate ]
7. Fine bentonite ]
8. Clay ]
9. Ground shale ]--------for reducing cost of grout and reduces
10. Rock flour ] strength of grout
 PERMEATION
Grout is injected into the soil at low pressure and fills the voids
without significantly changing the soil’s structure and volume.
Variety of binders are used with this technique, the choice of which is
dictated mainly by the permeability of the soil.
When the coefficient of permeability is greater than 10-2cm/sec,
water-cement mixes are used and for permeability as low as 10-5
cm/sec, the more expensive resin based grouts are used. Soils with K
values lower than 10-6 cm/sec are normally not groutable by
permeation.
 COMPACTION PERMEATION
The basic concept is of injecting an highly viscous grout with
high internal friction, injected into a compactable soil, the grout
acts as a radial-hydraulic jack and physically displaces the soil
particles thus achieving controlled densification.
Advantages
1.Minimum disturbance to the structure and surrounding ground,
2.Minimum risk during construction.
3.Ground water not affected.
4.Supports all portions of structures.
 COMPACTION PERMEATION

Disadvantages
•Grouting adjacent to unsupported slopes may be ineffective.
•Not suitable in decomposable materials.
•Danger of filling underground pipes with grout.
•Effectiveness questionable in saturated clays
 MICROFINE CEMENT
Thick slurries can not penetrate fine cracks and higher
injection pressures would cause fracturing of ground foundations.
Because of the higher water requirements of micro fine cement,
the slurry remains fluid enough to flow into and penetrate fine
sands and small cracks in rock.
These cements can treat finer grained sands not possible to
treat with Portland cement alone. They are also used to stabilize
waste plumes.
 CHEMICAL GROUTING
A key advantage of chemical grouting is the ability to introduce grout into
soil pores without any essential change in the original soil volume and structure,
thus changing the support capability of granular soils without disturbing them.
Another advantage is the ability to be less disruptive and enable tunneling to
proceed without over-excavation. A possible drawback of chemical grouting is
that only certain soil types are amenable. Another barrier to the use of chemical
grouting techniques in the recent is increasing concern regarding potential
pollution by chemical grouting in urban areas. Two trends have addressed this
issue:
1. Improvement of grouts through the development of new formulae that
enhance the penetrability of particulate suspensions and meet the strictest
specifications for environmental safety
2. Development of alternative techniques which by-pass the penetrability
restraints, such as jet grouting which allows the treatment of most types of soil,
independent of its grain size and permeability, using simple cement grouts
COMPACTION PERMEATION
 COMPENSATION GROUTING
1. Compensation (hydrofracture) grouting uses high-mobility grout
to split the ground and thereby create lifting or densification under
structures or other facilities.
2. The ground is deliberately split by injecting stable fluid cement-
based grouts at high pressures in order to increase total stress by the
wedging action of successive thin grout lenses, to fill unconnected
voids, and possibly to consolidate the soil locally under injection.
3. This process is often undertaken as a reaction to movements
while tunnel excavation is in progress.
4. It is important to keep in mind that the effects of compensation
(hydrofracture) grouting are difficult to control and the potential
danger of damaging adjacent structures by the use of high pressure
may prove prohibitive
 JET GROUTING

1. It is a technology in which high- pressure jets of cement grout

are discharged sideways into the borehole wall to
simultaneously excavate and then mix with the soil.
2. The outstanding feature of jet grouting is the ability to treat a
whole range of soils, from silty sands to cohesive deposits, by
means of simple cement grouts.
3. Jet grouting can be performed in soils with a wide range of
granulometries and permeabilites.
 ADVANTAGES

1. the ability to use very small drilling tools (90mm diameter) to

create large elements (1.2m to 2.4m diameter) using pressure
and flow;
2. the ability to drill underneath obstacles and solidify zones
which are hard to access;
3. the use of technically sophisticated techniques such as high-
powered pumps and monitoring devices with continuous
measurement of all operational parameters.
JET GROUTING
 GROUTING PLANT AND EQUIPMENT
A grouting plant includes a mixer, an agitator, a pump, and piping
connected to grout holes. Two systems: single line type and
circulating type. In the circulation type, the unused grout is returned
to the agitator and in the single-line type the grout refused is wasted.
The basic items required for a grouting plant and their functions are:
(a) Measuring tank-to control the volume of grout injected.
(b) Mixer-to mix the grout ingredients
(c) Agitator-to keep the solid particles in suspension until pumped
(d) Pump-to draw the grout from the agitator to deliver to the
pumping line.
(e) Control fittings-to control the injection rate and pressure so that
the hole can be regularly blend with water and thin grout.
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION
 PRECAUTIONS
The following are the precautions while mixing a grout:
• Water is placed first in the mixer.
• Mixer is run at the maximum speed before adding the cement.
• Grout is mixed in batches.
• Ingredients have to be measured in volume
• Enough water should be maintained to cover the rotor while it
is functioning.
• Mixer should not be allowed to run for more than a few
minutes between batches.
• Mixers should be cleaned thoroughly after the day’s work.
 DRILLING INJECTION HOLES

Holes for the injection of grout may be drilled with jack

hammers, wagon drills or diamond drills, depending on the
terrain, class of foundation material, and size and depth of holes.
Diamond drills usually give holes of uniform shape, while wagon
drills are satisfactory for holes up to about 10 meters depth.
 WASHING AND GROUTING THE SEAMS
Preparations for washing or grouting seams, consists of
installing a section of pipe of about 35 to 50mm dia and 0.50 to
1.0 m long in the grout hole with the top and projecting out a
short distance for connection to an air line or a pump.
For grouting the seams with neat cement for consolidation
purposes it is desirable to deposit the cement in clean seams by
removing any clay or any other unwanted materials. For this
cleaning effective method is to force a mixture of air and water
through the seams.
For deciding the pressure for grouting operation, most
common practice is to use a pressure 0.2kg/cm2 for each meter
of depth of hole.
Construction Techniques,
Equipment and Practice

UNIT – II

CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
• Specification • Precast Pavements

• Sequence of activities • Slip Forms

• Site clearance, Marking • Scaffoldings

•SYNOPSI
Damp Proof Course, Weathering • Fabrication & Erection of Steel
S
Course Trusses
• Masonry • Air Conditioning
• Flooring
• Acoustics
• Roofing
• Fire Protection
• Construction Joints
• Centering & Shuttering
• Foundation
Specification

• Specifications are statements which describe the nature and class of work,
materials to be used, labour to be employed, method of work, precautions
to be taken, quality of workmanship etc.,

• Contract specification

 General specification

 Detailed specification

• Guide specification

• Manufacturer’s specification
Sequence of Activities to be done in Construction
• Excavation • Plastering

• Concrete in Foundation • Pointing

• Soiling • Doors

• Damp Proof Course(DPC) • Windows

• Masonry Work • Wood Work

• Lintel • Iron Work

• Reinforced Cement Concrete • White Washing

• Flooring • Colour Washing

• Roofing • Painting
Masonr
y

 It is used to indicate the art of building the structures either in stones or

bricks.

 Masonry classification

 Stone masonry

 Brick masonry

 Hollow block concrete masonry

 Reinforced masonry

 Composite masonry
 Stone Masonry
Based on the arrangement of the stones in the construction
and degree of refinement in the surface finish.

 Rubble Masonry  Ashlar masonry

 Coursed rubble  Ashlar fine
 Uncoursed Rubble  Ashlar Rough – tooled
 Dry Rubble  Ashlar Rock or quarry face
 Polygonal Rubble  Ashlar Chamfered
 Flint Rubble  Ashlar Block – in - course
 Brick Masonry
Brick masonry is unified mass obtained by systematic
arrangement of laying bricks and bonding them together with
mortar.
 Raking bond
 Stretcher bond
 Dutch bond
 Header bond
 Brick on edge bond
 English bond
 English cross bond
 Flemish bond
 Facing bond
 Garden wall bond
 Composite Masonry

 Sometimes the facing and backing of a wall are constructed with different

classes of masonry or of different materials.

 Following are the usual combination

 Facing of ashlar masonry and backing of rubble masonry brickwork

 Facing of stone slabs and backing of concrete or brickwork

 Facing of brickwork and backing of rubble masonry

 Facing of brickwork and backing of cement concrete

 Facing of brickwork and backing of hollow cement concrete blocks

Reinforced Masonry
It’s a wall material. Beam, slabs have been built but with exception of deep
wall beams.
It does not require shuttering and expensive element of concrete.
It lies in walls subject to bending perpendicular to the wall beams.
It combines flexibility of form with good finish and frequently a large cost
saving compared with reinforced concrete.
Reinforced masonry is thus a cheap, durable, fire – proof, easy to construct and
in most cases it results in the increase of floor space due to adoption of
brickwork of lesser thickness.
Reinforced Masonry Walls
Masonry Reinforced Columns
Reinforced Masonry Lintels
Reinforced Masonry Slab
 Flooring
Floors are the horizontal elements of a building structures which divide the
building into different levels for the purpose of creating more accommodation
within a restricted space one above the other and provide support for the
occupants, furniture and equipment of a building.
 Mud & Murram • Rubber
 Flag – Stone or Stone
• Linoleum
 Brick
• Cork or Cork tiles
 Timber
 Cement concrete & Concrete • Magnesite

 Mosaic • Glass
 Terrazzo
• Marble
 Granolithic
• Plastic or PVC
 Tiled
• Asphalt
 Roofing
Roof is the uppermost part of a building which is supported on
structural members and covered with a roofing material. The main
function of a roof is to enclose the space or building and to protect the
same from the damaging effects of weather elements such as rain,
wind, heat, snow, etc., A good roof also increases the life of the
building.
 Pitched or Sloping Roofs

 Flat or Terrace Roofs

 Shell or Curved Roofs

 Domes
 Pitched Roof or Sloping Roof

 Single Roof  Triple – membered or Framed or

Lean – to Roof Trussed Roof
Couple Roof
King post roof truss
Couple close Roof
Queen post roof truss
Collar beam Roof
Collar & Scissors Roof Combinations of both truss

Double or Purlin Roof Mansard roof truss

Truncated roof truss

Belfast roof or bow string or latticed

roof truss
 Foundation
 The structure which is in direct contact with the ground. It transfers the
load of the structure to the soil below so as to avoid over – loading of the
soil beneath.

 It prevents the differential settlement by evenly loading the substrata.

 It provides a level surface for building operations.

 It also increases stability of structure by taking the structure deep into the
ground.

 Foundations are generally built of bricks, stones, concrete, steel, etc.,

 The selection of material and type of foundation depends upon the type
structure and the nature of underlying soil.

 Foundations should be designed to be capable of being constructed

economically and without risk of protracted delays.
 Types of
OpenFoundation
or Shallow foundation
Wall footing
Isolated footing
Combined footing
Inverted arch footing
Continuous footing
Cantilever footing
Grillage footing
Raft foundation
Pile Foundation
Function Material & Composition
Bearing piles
Cement concrete piles
Friction piles
Pre cast concrete piles
Screw piles
Cast in situ concrete piles
Compaction piles
Timber piles
Uplift piles
Steel piles
Batter piles
Sand piles
Sheet piles
Composite piles

Well Foundation or Caisson

Construction Joints
Construction joints are provided construction stopped at end of day
Proper bond between old work & new one(necessary to ensure)
Joints may be horizontal or vertical
In construction of large concrete members airfield pavements, road
pavements, factory floors, residential floors, columns in framed structure
cannot place concrete in one operation
Joints are left between subsequent concreting operation
Types of joints are
Construction joint
Expansion joints
Contraction joints
 Construction joint
Temporary joint
Position should be planned and concrete should be placed in one operation.
Walls & columns – horizontal, vertical
Beams & slabs – minimum shear
Appearance disturbed

Expansion joint
Volume changed
Floor, roof – joint not necessary for small building
Large building – joint necessary(2-5cm)
Maximum temperature : day : expansion
Minimum temperature : night : contraction
 Contraction joint
 Plastic, drying shrinkage, concrete shrinks

 Avoid cracks – joints provided 5 -10 m

 Dummy or control joints

 Unreinforced floors and pavements

Precast concrete piles

 Piles are manufactured in factory & driven into ground. Tampered or

parallel

 Square, octagonal shaped cast in horizontal forms, round shaped cast in

vertical forms

 Size 30 – 50cm, length – 18m or more

 Reinforcement is used for stress.

 Main or vertical reinforcement 20 – 40mm, lateral 5 – 10mm, spacing -

10cm( top, bottom), intermediate - 30cm

 Toe : steel shoe

Casting
Form work prepared and coated with soap solution or oil to prevent
adhesion

Cage of reinforcement is prepared, placed in formwork with cover 50mm

Concrete 1:2:2 or 1:2:4, CA – 10 to 25 mm size

Pour concrete in formwork and consolidated with vibrators

Formwork removed in 3days, remains 7days and then shifted to curing tank
for 3 to 4 weeks
Advantage
Position of reinforcement not disturbed from original position

Piles can driven under water. Sulphate resistance

Proper control & design is possible while manufacture

Defect of cast is repaired before driven into the ground

More piles are manufactured at convenient place & economical

Pile is smooth while driving it takes load, no wastage of time

High resistance to biological & chemical actions on ground

Disadvantage
 Heavy weight : transport, driven is difficult

 Costly extra reinforcement is provided to resist stresses develop

during handling & driving

 Wastage of material, if long pile is manufactured

 Sufficient care should to taken while transport or driving

 Piles not available – delay of work occur

 Size, length of pile depend on available transport facility

Slip forms
Essential parts of slip forms are as follows

Sheathing

Wales or ribs

Yokes

Working platform or deck

Suspended scaffolding

Lifting devices
Operation
Over concrete base, slip form set is assembled and filled with concrete
After setting of concrete, sufficient rigidity in bottom then upward
movement started from bottom to top.
Depending upon temperature, properties of concrete lifting rate is 50 to
80mm
Experienced person is employed for movement of slip form while moving

Uses
Vertical structures : economical
Used for piers, chimneys, towers, missile launching bases, water reservoirs,
silos, resolving restaurants, etc.,
Removal
Some factors: amount & nature of dead load

Character & quality of concrete

Shape, span & situation of structure

Temperature of the atmosphere

2-3 days remove formwork – beam sides

10-21 days – between beam, floors

Use rapid hardening cement within 3-4 days formwork can removed

High – alumina cement, takes few hours to remove formwork

Scaffolding
Temporary structure gives support to workman, structural material, other
appliances, etc.,
Used in building construction, demolition, maintenance & repair works
Erected either one(ordinary works) or both sides of walls(superior works)
and heights can adjusted
Components
Planks – supporting men, materials, appliances
Guard boards – working on ledgers level to guard materials
Toe boards – parallel to ledgers for protection
Types
Single or bricklayers scaffoldings – BW used in construction, made of
bamboos, poles except platform, single standard 1.5 to 2m, spacing 1.2m,
ledgers 1.2 – 1.5m, put legs 1.2 – 1.5m
Double scaffolding – stronger, stone work, two rows
Ladder scaffolding – easily assembled, platform supported on brackets,
heights can adjusted, used in light works such as exterior walls, paintings,
decorations
Cantilever scaffolding – Where standard not possible to fix in ground, busy
street, traffic areas, upper storey of tall buildings
Suspended scaffolding – light steel frame construction, maintenance work
such as paintings, pointing, distempering, etc., working platform is
suspended from roofs by means of wire ropes or chains
Steel scaffolding – same as timber scaffolding except wooden members are
replaced by steel tubes and rope

Removal

Walls, beams, column sides(low load)

Slabs

Heavy load, girders, beam bottom

Walls, columns, beams sides : 1 – 2 days

Slabs : 3

Beam soffit (under) : 7

Slab upto 4.5 :7, over 4.5 :14

Beams upto 6 : 14

Arches over 6 : 21
Fabrication & Erection of Trusses
Roof trusses : principle rafters, ties, struts, purlin, cleats etc., gusset plates,
rivets, bolts

Use of steel trusses proves to economical for span >12m

Steel roof trusses designed should be compression or tension (no bending

stress)

Arrangement & size depends upon roof slope, span, loading wind pressure
distance

Compression member strut : short to avoid buckling, principle rafter :

transverse stresses not larger than 3m & maximum

T section best for principle rafter, channel for struts

Small trusses fabricated in factory or workshop & transport to site while
large trusses fabricated at the job site

Truss should be arranged to form triangles – truss not deform

Distance not exceed 3m, light roofs – more distance or spacing

Joints or connection of member called nodes or panel points, gusset plates

In rivets, pitch should not less than 3times diameter. L < 7 18mm diameter
rivets, L > 7 20mm diameter rivets

Gusset plate thickness 6mm(small) & 10mm(large) roof trusses

Three types of trusses north light roof trusses – factories, workshop, Bow
string type trusses – 20m span, arched truss

Small span end of truss fixed, large span one fixed, one end mounted on
steel rollers
Air conditioning of buildings
Process of treating air to control temperature, humid purity distribution to
meet the meet the requirement of conditioned

Classification of air conditioning

Comfort – inside the room(Residential, institution, hospitals)

Industrial – material processing, manufacturing storage etc.,

Steps of air conditioning

Summer - outside temp is above inside temp , cycle of operation involves

air cooling, dehumidifying, air distribution & air cleaning

Winter – below, air heating, humidification

Composite - both
Principle of comfort air conditioning
Temperature control – comfortable zone for people both in summer & winter
Air velocity control – velocity increases, temperature decreases 6-9m/s
Humidity control – with conditioned air is important, dry air , moisture is added
to heated air(summer), moisture extracted from cool air, humidity 40 – 60%

Systems
Central system – one focal point, conditioned air is distributed to all room, less
space for installation, maintenance easy, one unit(economical), instead of more
unit for every room
Unit system – window
Unitary control – from central to every unit
Combined control –central or self conditioned, central or semi conditioned
Frames
In portal frames structural roof members are rigidly connected to column or post
for continuous structural member to withstand bending
North light RC portal frames
Span 9m, rafter south facing slope 221/2•, north 60• - 80•
Rafter divided into sections for convenience in casting & transporting
Rafter is bolted together, gutter, purlin to support wood wool slabs
Slabs(insulators) – roof deck covered with north light glazing
Flat RC portal frames monitors
Two span portal type – monitor light provided, made of glazing, open for
ventilation
At junction of monitor light & flat roof – large heavy precast reinforced concrete
beams are bolted to frame
Serve for fixing roof covering & glazing
Domes
Semi – spherical or semi elliptical in shape
Used as roof structure – material stone,
brick or concrete
Types of domes
Supported on regular or circular polygon Spherical domes

shaped walls Cylindrical domes

Certain height, diameter ratios, small Rectangular domes

thickness Triangular domes
Used in monumental work(circular, Square domes
hexagonal shape) Intersecting double
Domes can be either smooth shell domes curved barrel domes
or ribbed domes
Braced domes
Oldest structural form, arch, three dimensional structure
Enclose maximum space with minimum surface & economical in terms of
material
Material – high strength alloy(magnesium alloy, aluminum alloys)
Types
Frame or skeleton type – single layer dome
Truss type – double layer dome, extremely rigid provides greater resistance to
buckling, suitable for layer spans
Stressed skin type – covering part an integral part of structural system
Framed surface type – bent sheets interconnected along edges to form main
skeleton
Acoustics
The branch of science which deals with the planning of building or hall with a
view to provide best audible sound to the audience

Features of good acoustics

The sound heard must be sufficiently loud in every part of the hall and no
echoes should be present

The total quality of speech and music must be changed ie., relative intensities
of several components of a complex sound must be maintained

The successive syllables spoken must be clear and distinct

The reverberation should be quite proper ie., neither too low nor too high

There should not be any concentration of sound in any portion of hall

The boundaries should be sufficiently sound proof

Acoustical defects

Formation of echoes

Reverberation

Sound foci & dead spots

Insufficient loudness

Exterior noise nuisance or out door noise effects

Fire Protection in Buildings
For important buildings in addition to the use of fire resisting materials and
adoption of fire resistant construction, the following general measure of safety
have been recommended

Alarm system

Manual alarm system

Automatic alarm system

Fire extinguishing arrangements

Normally operated equipments

Fire hydrants

Automatic sprinkler system

Escape routes
Thank
you