Chapter 20

Classification of
Living Things
 Classification of 2
Living Things
Outline
Taxonomy
Binomial System
Species Identification
Classification Categories
Phylogenetic Trees
Systematics
- Taxonomy (naming of organisms)
- Classification (placing species in the proper categories)
Systematics Today
Cladistic Systematics
Phenetic Systematics
Classification Systems
The Five Kingdom System
The Three Domain Ssytem
 Classification of 3
Living Things
Taxonomy

Branch of biology concerned with identifying,

naming, and classifying organisms
Began with the ancient Greeks and Romans
Aristotle classified organisms into groups
such as horses, birds, and oaks
John Ray (1627–1705)
Believed that each organism should have a
set name
Otherwise, “men…cannot see and record
accurately.”
Classifying Organisms 4
 Classification of 5
Taxonomy: Living Things
Binomial System

Mid-eighteenth century, Linnaeus developed

the binomial system of nomenclature
First word is genus name
Second word is specific epithet
- Refers to one species (of potentially many)
within its genus
A species is referred to by the full binomial
name (Genus species)
Genus name can be used alone to refer to a
group of related species
Carolus Linnaeus 6
 Classification of 7
Taxonomy: Living Things
Distinguishing Species

Distinguishing species on the basis of

structure can be difficult
Members of the same species can vary in
structure
Attempts to demonstrate reproductive
isolation is problematic because:
- Some species hybridize, and
- Reproductive isolation is difficult to observe
Members of a Species 8
Hybridization between species 9
 Classification of 10
Living Things
Classification Categories
Modern taxonomists use the following
classification:
Species
Genus – one or more species
Family – one or more genera
Order – one or more families
Class – one or more orders
Phylum – one or more classes
Kingdom – one or more phyla
Domain – one or more kingdoms
 Hierarchy of Taxa for 11
Parthenocissus quinquefolia
 Classification of 12
Living Things
Classification Categories

The higher the category, the more inclusive

Organisms in the same domain have general
characteristics in common
In most cases, classification categories can
be subdivided into additional categories
Superorder
Order
Suborder
Infraorder
 Classification of 13
Living Things
Phylogenetic Trees
Systematics - the diversity of organisms at all
levels
One goal of systematics is to determine
phylogeny (evolutionary history) of a group
Phylogeny often represented as a
phylogenetic tree
A diagram indicating lines of descent
Each branching point:
- Is a divergence from a common ancestor
- Represents an organism that gives rise to two
new groups
Classification and Phylogeny 14
 Classification of 15
Living Things
Phylogenetic Trees

Classification lists the unique characters of

each taxon and is intended to reflect
phylogeny
Primitive characters:
- Present in all members of a group, and
- Present in the common ancestor
Derived characters:
- Present in some members of a group, but
- Absent in the common ancestor
 Classification of 16
Living Things
Tracing Phylogeny
Fossil Record
Fossil record is incomplete
It is often difficult to determine the phylogeny
of a fossil
Homology
Refers to features that stem from a common
ancestor
Homologous structures are related to each
other through common descent
Analogy
Similarity due to convergence
Ancestral Angiosperm 17
 Classification of 18
Living Things
Tracing Phylogeny
Convergent Evolution
The acquisition of a feature in distantly related
lines of descent
The feature is not present in a common
ancestor
Parallel Evolution
The acquisition of a feature in two or more
related lineages
The feature is not present in a common
ancestor
Convergent Evolution 19
 Classification of 20
Living Things
Molecular Data
Protein Comparisons
Immunological techniques
- Degree of cross reaction used to judge relationship
Amino acid sequencing
- Similar sequence in same protein indicates close
relationship
RNA and DNA Comparisons
Systematics assumes:
- Two species with similar base-pair sequences are
assumed to be closely related
- Two species with differing base-pair sequences are
assumed to be only distantly related
Molecular Clocks
Use non adaptive nucleotide sequences
Assumed constant rate of mutation over time
Ancestry of Giant Pandas 21
Molecular Data 22
 Classification of 23
Living Things
Cladistic Systematics
Traces evolutionary history of the group
under study
Uses shared derived characters to:
Classify organisms, and
Arrange taxa into a cladogram
- A cladogram is a special type of phylogenetic
tree
- A clade is an evolutionary branch that includes:
A common ancestor, together with
 All its descendent species
Constructing a Cladogram 24
 Classification of 25
Living Things
Parsimony
Cladists are always guided by the principle of
parsimony
The arrangement requiring the fewest
assumptions is preferred
This would:
- Leave the fewest number of shared derived
characters unexplained
- Minimize the number of assumed evolutionary
changes
The reliability of a cladogram is dependent on
the knowledge and skill of the investigator
Alternate, Simplified Cladograms 26
Cladistic Versus Traditional View of 27
Reptilian Phylogeny
 Classification of 28
Living Things
Phenetic Systematics

Assumes it will never be possible to construct

a truly phylogenetic classification system
Species are classified according to the total
number of shared similarities
Disregards assumed phylogenetic
considerations
Ignores issues of convergent or parallel
evolution
 Classification of 29
Living Things
Traditional Systematics

Mainly uses anatomical data

Classify organisms using assumed phylogeny
with emphasis on phenotype
Stress both common ancestry and degree of
structural difference among divergent groups
Construct phylogenetic trees by applying
evolutionary principles to categories
Not strict in making sure all taxa are
monophyletic
 Classification of 30
Living Things
Classification Systems

Until the middle of the twentieth century,

biologists recognized only two kingdoms
Plantae (plants)
Animalia (animals)
Protista (protists) were added as third
kingdom in the 1880s
Whittaker expanded to five kingdoms in 1969
by adding Fungi and Monera
 Classification of 31
Living Things
Three-Domain System

The Bacteria and Archaea are so different

they have been assigned to separate
domains
Similar in that both are asexually reproducing
unicellular prokaryotes
Distinguishable by:
Difference in rRNA base sequences
Plasma membrane chemistry
Cell wall chemistry
 Classification of 32
Living Things
Three-Domain System
Domain Eukarya
Unicellular and multicellular organisms
Cells with a membrane-bounded nucleus
Sexual reproduction common
Contains four kingdoms
- Kingdom Protista
- Kingdom Fungi
- Kingdom Plantae
- Kingdom Animalia
 The Three-Domain 33
System of Classification
The Three Domains of Life 34
 Classification of 35
Living Things
Review
Taxonomy
Binomial System
Species Identification
Classification Categories
Phylogenetic Trees
Systematics
- Taxonomy (naming of organisms)
- Classification (placing species in the proper categories)
Systematics Today
Cladistic Systematics
Phenetic Systematics
Classification Systems
The Five Kingdom System
The Three Domain System
 Ending Slide Chapter 20

Classification of
Living Things