Gas Transportation

& Storage I

Nov. 27
 Gas Transportation & Storage
• Pipelines (today)
– Gas pipeline networks

– Flow equations (with numeric examples)

– Pipeline gas storage

2
Canadian Gas Pipeline Network

3
 North American Gas Network

More Detail
From www.cepa.com 4
 https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/justin-trudeau-
calgary-financial-downturn-frustration-1.4916309
https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/trudeau-calgary-
chamber-of-commerce-economy-1.4918039

Source: Financial Post, 2017 5

 Pipeline vs. Wellbore
• Gas Pipeline
– Gathering, transmission,
distribution
– Long lengths (10’s, 100’s
of km)
– Nearly isothermal
– Low pressure gradient
– Relatively small static
(elevation) gradient
component, especially in
Saskatchewan
– Usually solving for flow
rate (capacity)
• Wellbore Flow
– Short lengths (100’s-
1000’s of m)
– Large temperature,
pressure changes
– Vertical (static)
gradient component
can dominate pressure
loss (especially if
liquid is produced)
– Usually solving for
bottomhole pressure
6
 Pipeline Flow Equation
Not for the last time in PET E 444, recall the energy equation,
g rvdv f M v 2 rdl
dp = r cosqdl + +
gc a gc 2gc d

For pipeline flow, we assume that:

• the kinetic energy term is small enough to neglect (as before) and
• the pipe is more or less horizontal, therefore eliminating the static
term.

This leaves,
f M v 2 rdl The f/2d term shows that this
dp = equation assumes the Moody
2gc d
friction factor

7
Moody’s Friction Chart (1944)

8
Fanning Friction Chart

Fanning

9
 Pipeline Flow Equation
Now introducing the real gas law
pM
r=
zRT

Substituting into the differential equation in place of density gives,

f M v 2 pM
dp = dl
2gc d zRT

Recall we previously developed an expression for gas velocity,

q Bg qs 4 zTps
v= = = 2 qs
A A pd pTs

which is then substituted into the differential equation,

10
Pipeline Flow Equation

Pipeline people seem to use

P instead of p for pressure

11
 Pipeline Flow Equation
The solution in this case, is straight forward,
 
2
P1  P2
2 2
f 4 p zT M
 M  2 s qs  L
2 2gc d d Ts  R

Since the pipeline flow equation is usually expressed in terms of

flow rate, we do a bit of rearranging,
2  
1 P12  P22  5
2
2gc  R Ts
   
d  qs
2

16M ps  f M  2z T L 

g  R2 T 
2
1 P 2
 P 2 
qs2  c  
s

1 2
d We let M = Mairg
5

16M air g ps  f M  z T L 

 2    1 P12  P22  5
2
gc R Ts
qs  
2
  
 
d

Collect terms that are
16M air ps  f M   g z T L  constants

12
Pipeline Flow Equation

13
 Pipeline Flow Equation
Gas pipeline equations appeared as early as the mid-1800’s.
Applicable to local manufactured gas distribution systems
operating a very low differential pressures they were of the form,
pd 5
qs  C
gL

Observe that friction factor is not explicit. Another form, that did
incorporate friction along with line temperature was given by
Unwin (ca. 1904):
T
qs  C s
P1
2
 P2
2
d 5

G is specific gravity of gas

Ps GfTL

Clegg, “A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture and Distribution of Coal Gas,” 1873.
Lichty, “Measurement, Compression and Transmission of Natural Gas,” 1924. 14
 Pipeline Flow Equation
Then in 1912 Thomas Weymouth devised a correlation for air
friction factors based on the work of Harris (1910),
0.008
f = 3 f is Fanning friction factor
d d is pipe diameter, inches

and placed it into Unwin’s equation. If we rearrange the

expression for f,
1
0.008 1 d 3
f = 3 =
d f 0.008

(P - P )d ( P - P ) d d = C Ts ê ( P1 - P2 ) ú d 2.667
é 2 ù
0.5
2 2 5 2 2 1/ 3 5 2
T Ts
qs = C s =C
1 2 1 2
¢
Ps GfTL Ps 0.008GTL Ps êë GTL úû

Q is std cubic feet per hour

15
 Pipeline Flow Equation
Weymouth claimed that his equation was the best of those
available (which was true at the time.) However, the equation is
no longer considered accurate for modern long pipelines.

The explanation lies in part in Weymouth’s choice of a correlation

for pipe friction factor. We now know that the friction factor is a
function of relative roughness and Reynolds number.

Typical of a gas pipeline we can find a value of relative roughness

that gives a reasonable match using the Jain correlation,
1 æ e 21.25 ö
= 1.14 - 2 logçç + 0.9 ÷÷
f èd N re ø

16
Pipeline Flow
Equation
The match between
Weymouth and Jain friction
factors occurs at an absolute
roughness of about =0.004
inches. This appears to be
consistent with iron pipes in
the early 20th century,
however it is much too high
for modern steel pipe.
Therefore the Weymouth
equation is no longer
considered appropriate.
17
 Pipeline Flow Equation
The two other well known pipeline equations are:

Panhandle A
- developed in the 1930’s and 1940’s
- Texas Panhandle field – Chicago pipeline
- bolted flange connections
- operating pressure about 900 psi
- upper end of partially turbulent flow
0.085
- Moody friction factor defined as: fM =
N Re
0.147

Panhandle B (a.k.a. modified Panhandle)

- 1950’s
- the Panhandle Eastern Pipeline Company
- fully turbulent flow
0.0143
- Moody friction factor defined as: fM =
N Re
0.03922
18
 Pipeline Flow Equation
The popular forms of pipeline equations, with customary SI units,
are:
Note: L is in km
for SI version of
Weymouth Weymouth

Panhandle A

Panhandle B

19
 Pipeline Flow Equation
Pipe flow equations still appear to have difficulty matching field
data. Some contributing factors may be:

- equations such as the Panhandle were devised for specific

pipelines
- elevation changes may cause actual length of pipe to differ from
length in plain view
- even small accumulation of liquids in low spots can cause
constriction to flow (increased p)
- pipeline effective roughness may be higher from cumulative
effects of weld joints (more significant than wellbore tubing collar
connections)
- some pipe was manufactured with a seam

20
 Pipeline Flow Equation
• The parameter E is called the pipeline
efficiency factor.
It is meant to account for real-world
effects that spoil the idealized pipeline
equation, such as:
– corrosion in the pipe (increases
(from Guo)
absolute roughness, e)
– unauthorized items inside the pipe:
• welding rods and slag at pipe joints
• lunch buckets and thermos bottles
• leftover bits of line pigs
– elevation differences
• condensed water and hydrocarbons Gas transmission ~0 0.98 - 1.00
(especially in low spots)

Guo, B., Lyons, W.C and Ghalambor, A.: “Petroleum Production Engineering,” Elsevier Books, 2007.
http://www.gaselectricpartnership.com/BBPipeline%20Efficiency%20ATJ.pdf 21
Pipeline Flow Equation

22
 Pipeline Flow Equation (SI)
If our working SI units are,
Q, std m3/d
P, kPa
L, m
d, mm
T, °K

We can combine the constant values to arrive at the following

isothermal pipeline equation:

Note that not all sources include the pipeline efficiency factor, E.

This coefficient is 0.036 if using fM

23
 Pipeline Flow Equation (English)
In English working units of,
Q, std ft3/d
P, psia
L, miles
d, inches
T, °R

the isothermal pipeline equation becomes:

æ Ts ö 1 æ P12 - P22 ö 2.5
0.5

qs = 77.54ç ÷ çç ÷÷ d
è ps ø f M è g g z T L ø

24
 Example Problem 12.1
Example
Given the following data (which would be typical of a segment of the
Alberta NOVA Gas Transmission line, between compressor stations),
calculate the flow capacity of a buried pipeline with the isothermal
pipeline equation:

g = 0.554 (pipeline spec natural gas, i.e. methane)

P1 = 7000 kPa P2 = 1750 kPa
d = 650mm  = 0.01778 mm L = 80000m
Tavg = 4°C μ=11.8 μPa-s

By inspecting the equation, it is clear that we first need to determine z-

factor and friction factor. We have everything we need to determine z.
However friction factor requires Reynolds number which in turn needs a
flow rate! So we have another iterative solution in our hands (darn and
heck.)

25
Pipeline Flow Equation

26
 Example Problem 12.2
Please calculate the pipe diameter, if the outlet pressure has been
changed to 4000 kpa, while maintaining the flow rate as obtained
from Example Problem 12.1.

27
 Example Problem 12.3
Please calculate the outlet pressure, if the pipe length is reduced
to 60 km, while maintaining the flow rate as obtained from
Example Problem 12.1.

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 Next Lecture
• Gas Transport and Storage II

29
 Example Solution 12.1
Example (… cont’d)
Looking up critical properties for methane,
Tc = 190.56K and pc = 4599 kPaa

The pipeline is effectively at the same temperature throughout, so

Tavg (4  273.15)
Tr    1.45
Tc 190.56
pavg (7000  1750) /2
pr    0.951
pc 4599

Then we can use the Standing & Katz chart or our favorite
correlation to obtain,
z(Tr , pr )  z(1.45,0.951)  0.897

30
 Example Solution 12.1
Example (…cont’d)
The next problem is to obtain the friction factor. This would
ordinarily be an iterative solution, requiring an initial guess of flow
rate. The rate would then be used to calculate Reynolds number.

However, observe on the Moody chart that for rough pipe at high
Reynolds number (fully developed turbulence) the friction factor
depends only upon the roughness! We calculate the relative
roughness,
/d = 0.01778/650 = 2.74  10-5

And from the far right hand side of the Moody chart find that
fM = 0.009 (approximately)

31
Moody’s Friction Chart (1944)

32
 Example Solution 12.1
Example (… cont’d)
Then, placing the values into the equation we have,
0.5
 Ts  1  P  P
2 2 
qs  0.036    1 2
 d
2.5

 ps  f M   g zTL 
0.5
 15  273.15  1  7000  1750 
2 2
qs  0.036     650 2.5

 101.325  0.009  0.554  0.897  277.15  80000 

qs  2.374 107 Sm3 / d

Now we have a gas flow rate with which to check the Reynolds
number…

33
Reynolds Number

34
 Example Solution 12.1
Example (… cont’d)
 g qsc (0.554)(2.374 107 )
N RE  18050.7  18050.7  3.09 107
d (11.8)(650)

which is clearly in fully developed turbulent flow!

Now we can update our friction factor for an improved calculation

of qsc. Do this either by referring to the Moody chart once again,
or you may want to impress your friends with the Jain equation,
æ e 21.25 ö æ ö
1
= 1.14 - 2logç + ÷ = 1.14 - 2logç 2.74 ´10-5 + 21.25 ÷
è d N RE ø ç
( ) ÷
0.9 0.9
fM 3.09 ´10 7
è ø
1
= 10.15 f M = 1/10.15 2 = 0.00971
fM

35
Example Solution 12.1

36
 Example Solution 12.2
Example (… cont’d)
Looking up critical properties for methane,
Tc = 190.56K and pc = 4599 kPaa

The pipeline is effectively at the same temperature throughout, so

Tavg (4  273.15)
Tr    1.45
Tc 190.56
pavg (7000  4000) / 2
pr    1.20
pc 4599

Then we can use the Standing & Katz chart or our favorite
correlation to obtain,
z (Tr , pr )  z(1.45,1.20)  0.872

37
 Example Solution 12.2
Example (…cont’d)
Assume d=800 mm. We calculate the relative roughness,
/d = 0.01778/800 = 2.22  10-5

And from the far-right hand side of the Moody chart, assume
fM = 0.008 (approximately)

38
 Example Solution 12.2
Example (… cont’d)
Then, the diameter of the pipe is,
qs
d 2.5  0.5
 Ts  1  P12  P22 
0.036    
 ps  f M   g zTL 
2.286 107
d 2.5  0.5
 288.15  1  7000  4000 
2 2
0.036    
 101.325  0.008  0.554  0.872  277.15  80000 
d 2.5  1.14 107
d  664.4mm

Now we have a gas flow rate with which to check the Reynolds
number…
39
 Example Solution 12.2
Example (… cont’d)
 g qsc (0.554)(2.286 107 )
N RE  18050.7  18050.7  2.92 107
d (11.8)(664.4)

with the Jain equation,

 
1   21.25   0.01778  21.25 
 1.14  2 log   0.9 
 1.14  2 log
 664.4
  
0.9
fM  d N  2.92  10 7
 
RE

1
 10.16 f M  1/10.162  0.00968
fM

40
 Example Solution 12.2
Example (… cont’d)
When you return to recalculate the pipe, observe that the only
thing in the equation that changes is the friction factor (this can be
used to your advantage in saving computational effort.)
qs
d 2.5  0.5
 Ts  1  P12  P22 
0.036    
 s  fM  g
p  zTL 
2.286 107
d 2.5  0.5
 288.15  1  7000  4000
2 2

0.036    
 101.325  0.00968  0.554  0.872  277.15  80000 
d 2.5  1.25 107
d  690.2mm

41
 Example Solution 12.2
Example (… cont’d)
 g qsc (0.554)(2.286 107 )
N RE  18050.7  18050.7  2.81107
d (11.8)(690.2)

with the Jain equation,

 
1   21.25   0.01778  21.25 
 1.14  2 log   0.9 
 1.14  2 log
 690.2
  
0.9
fM  d N  2.81  10 7
 
RE

1
 10.19 f M  1/10.192  0.00964
fM

42
 Example Solution 12.2
Example (… cont’d)
Then,
qs
d 2.5  0.5
 Ts  1  P  P
2 2 
0.036    1 2

 ps  f M   g zTL 
2.286 107
d 2.5  0.5
 288.15  1  70002  40002 
0.036    
 101.325  0.00964  0.554  0.872  277.15  80000 
d 2.5  1.25 107
d  689.6mm

43
 Example Solution 12.2
Example (… cont’d)
 g qsc (0.554)(2.286 107 )
N RE  18050.7  18050.7  2.81107
d (11.8)(690.2)

with the Jain equation,

 
1   21.25   0.01778  21.25 
 1.14  2 log   0.9 
 1.14  2 log
 689.6
  
0.9
fM  d N  2.81  10 7
 
RE

1
 10.19 f M  1/10.192  0.00964
fM

Friction factor converges!

Then d=689.6 mm

44
 Example Solution 12.3
Example (… cont’d)
Looking up critical properties for methane,
Tc = 190.56K and pc = 4599 kPaa

The pipeline is effectively at the same temperature throughout, so

Tavg (4  273.15)
Tr    1.45
Tc 190.56

Assume P2=3000 kpa,

Pavg (7000  3000) / 2
Pr    1.087
Pc 4599
Then we can use the Standing & Katz chart or our favorite
correlation to obtain,
z (Tr , pr )  z (1.45,1.087)  0.883
45
 Example Solution 12.3
Example (…cont’d)
We calculate the relative roughness,
/d = 0.01778/650 = 2.74  10-5

And from the far-right hand side of the Moody chart, assume
fM = 0.0097 (approximately)

46
 Example Solution 12.3
Example (… cont’d)
Then, the outlet pressure is,
qs2 f M  g zTL
P2  P12  2
T 
0.0362  s  d 5
 ps 

 
2
2.286 107  0.0097  0.554  0.883  277.15  60000
P2  7000 2
 2
 288.15 
0.0362   6505

 101.325 
P2  1.51107
P2  3885.3kpa

Now we have a gas flow rate with which to check the Reynolds
number…
47
 Example Solution 12.3
Example (… cont’d)
 g qsc (0.554)(2.286 107 )
N RE  18050.7  18050.7  2.98 107
d (11.8)(650)
which is constant.

with the Jain equation,

 
1   21.25   0.01778  21.25 
 1.14  2 log   0.9 
 1.14  2 log
 650
  
0.9
fM  d N  2.98  10 7
 
RE

1
 10.15 f M  1/10.152  0.00971
fM

which is constant as well.

48
 Example Solution 12.3
Example (… cont’d)

With P2=3885.3 kpa,

Pavg (7000  3885.3) / 2
Pr    1.183
Pc 4599
Then we can use the Standing & Katz chart or our favorite
correlation to obtain,
z (Tr , pr )  z (1.45,1.183)  0.873

49
 Example Solution 12.3
Example (… cont’d)
Then, the outlet pressure is,
qs2 f M  g zTL
P2  P12  2
2  Ts 
0.036   d 5
 ps 

 
2
2.286 107  0.00971 0.554  0.873  277.15  60000
P2  7000 2
 2
2  288.15  5
0.036   650
 101.325 
P2  1.54 107
P2  3929.2kpa

50
 Example Solution 12.3
Example (… cont’d)

With P2=3929.2 kpa,

Pavg (7000  3929.2) / 2
Pr    1.188
Pc 4599
Then we can use the Standing & Katz chart or our favorite
correlation to obtain,
z (Tr , pr )  z (1.45,1.188)  0.873

51
 Example Solution 12.3
Example (… cont’d)
Then, the outlet pressure is,
qs2 f M  g zTL
P2  P12  2
2  Ts 
0.036   d 5
 ps 

 
2
2.286 107  0.00971 0.554  0.873  277.15  60000
P2  7000 2
 2
 288.15 
0.0362   650 5

 101.325 
P2  1.54 107
P2  3929.2kpa

Converges!

52