Soil?

We know more about the movement of

celestial bodies than about the soil
underfoot.
- Leonardo da Vinci
• “the skin of the Earth”

• the condition and nature if a soil reflects both the ancient

environments under which it formed and today's environmental
conditions.

• the upper layer of earth in which plants grow, a black or dark

brown material typically consisting of a mixture of organic remains,
clay, and rock particles.
*Most minerals found in soils are
combinations of the common elements
of surface rocks: silicon, aluminum,
oxygen and iron.

Soil Fertilization is the process of

adding nutrients or other
constituents in order to meet the
soil conditions that certain plants
require.
Soils can process and contain considerable amounts of water. They can take in
water, and will keep doing so until they are full, or until the rate at which they can
transmit water into and through the pores is exceeded.
When Soil water adheres to
soil particles and soil clumps
by surface tension (the
property that causes small
water droplets to form
rounded beads instead of
spreading out in a thin film)
it is called Capillary Water.
Gravitational water
moving down through a
soil also can wash the
finer solid particles (clay
and silt) away from upper
soil layers. The downward
removal of soil
components of water is
also called Eluviation.
Soil water is also found as a Water that percolates down
very thin film, invisible to the through a soil under the force
naked eye that is bound to of gravity is called
Gravitational Water.
the surfaces of soild
particles by strong
evaporating forces. This is
Hygroscopic Water, which
does not move through the
soil, nor does it supply plants
with the moisture they
needed.
As gravitational water
colates downward, it
deposits the fine
materials that were
removed from the topsoil
at a lower level inthe soil.
Deposition by water in
the subsoil iscalled
illuviation.
• The air an d other gases in spaces in the soil; specifically, that which is found within the zone of
aeration.

• Perhaps as much as nearly 50 %of a soil consists of open spaces between soil particles and
dumps (aggregates of soil particles).
• Voids that are not filled with water containe air or gasses. Compare to the composition of the
lower atmosphere, the air in a soil is likely to have less oxygen, more carbon dioxide, and a fairly
high relative humidity because of the pressure of capillary and hygroscopic water.

• is a matter is the fraction of the soil that consists of plant or animal tissue in various
stages of breakdown (decomposition). Most of our productive agricultural soils have
between 3 and 6% organic matter.
•
• Soil organic matter contributes to soil productivity in many different ways. In this fact
sheet, we describe the various components of organic matter and the different roles
organic matter plays in soil productivity. We also discuss field management practices that
will help preserve or increase soil organic matter levels over time.
• The color of a soil is immediatly visible, but it might not be its most important characterestic. Most
people know that soils vary in color from to place to place. For example, the well-known red clay soils
of Georgia are not from Albama's belt of black soils. Soils vary in color from black toi red, yellow,
gray, and near - white.

• The Soil Texture is an important soil characteristic that influences stormwater infiltration rates.
The textural class of a soil is determined by the percentage of sand, silt, and clay. Soils can be
classified as one of four major textural classes: (1) sands; (2) silts; (3) loams; and (4) clays. In this
fact sheet, we will discuss the importance of soil texture, different methods to determine soil
texture, and the importance of texture on management decisions.

• The Soil Structure refers to the arrangement of soil separates into units called soil aggregates. An
aggregate possesses solids and pore space. Aggregates are separated by planes of weakness and are
dominated by clay particles. Silt and fine sand particles may also be part of an aggregate. The
aggregate acts like a larger silt or sand particle depending upon its size
• An important aspect of soil chemistry is acidity and alkalinity (baseness), or neutrality. Levels of
Acidity and Alkalinity are measured on the pH scale of 0 to 14. A pH reading indicates the
concentration of reactive hydrogen ions present. The pH scale is logarithmic, meaning each that each
change in a whole pH number represents a tenfold change.

• The pH scale indicates acidity or alkalinity. A soil with a pH number below 7 is acid, while one with a
pH above 7 is alkaline. Garden plants typically grow best in neutral or slightly acid soil (pH 7 or slightly
below; see illustration at left). Most won’t thrive in highly acid or highly alkaline soil, though a few
have adapted to such extremes. In general, some nutrients cannot be efficiently absorbed by plant
roots if soil pH is too high. If it is too low, on the other hand, nutrients may be taken up too
efficiently: the excess cannot be processed fast enough and overloads a plant’s system, causing it to
languish and die.
• Well-developed soils typically exhibit distinct layers in their soil profiles called Soil Horizons that are
distinguished by their physical and chemical properties. Soils are classified largely on the differences
in the horizons that exists in the soil profile and by the processes responsible for those differences.

• Ever dug into in the soil and noticed how it seems to change color the deeper you go? Some soils are
dark brown near the surface and get lighter in color as you go deeper. Others display a sandy, light-
gray layer near the surface with a reddish layer beneath. These different colored layers are known as
horizons. All the horizons taken together comprise the soil profile. Soil horizons form as a result of
the four horizon development processes, additions, transformation, translocation, and removal.

• Additions can be materials that are transported into the location where a soil is forming. For
instance, dust with a high calcium carbonate content could be blown on to the developing soil adding
calcium to the evolving profile. This is one idea as to how soils in the Midwestern part of the United
States called mollisols were enriched with CaCO3. When plants die or leaves fall on to the surface
they decompose adding organic matter to the soil.
• Transformation of the materials added to the developing soil occur by chemical and biological
processes acting on them. For instance, leaves falling on the surface and plant roots dying beneath
may decompose into a dark brown, nutrient-rich material called humus. Humus is responsible for the
dark brown to black color of many soils, especially near the top of the soil profile. Iron and aluminum
can be oxidized under warm, moist climates. Soil material is constantly being transformed in one way
or another.

• Translocation involves the movement of soil-forming materials through the developing soil
profile. Translocation occurs by water running through the soil transferring materials from upper to
lower portions of the profile. Burrowing animals like earth worms, ants, etc., move soil materials within
the profile. Burrowing animals create passage ways through which air and water can travel promoting
soil development.

• Removal of soil forming materials means that they are completely removed from the soil profile.
Easily dissolved elements like calcium carbonate can be removed from the soil profile under rainy
climates.
• Soil horizons develop in response to the relative importance of each of the above processes. All soils
are impacted by the horizon development processes to one degree or another. These processes
determine the characteristics or properties of soil in each of the horizons.
 Parent Rock/Material -
• This refers to the mineral material or organic material from which the soil is formed. Soils will carry
the characteristics of its parent material such as color, texture, structure, mineral composition and so
on. For example, if soils are formed from an area with large rocks (parent rocks) of red sandstone,
the soils will also be red in color and have the same feel as its parent material.

Time -
• Soils can take many years to form. Younger soils have some characteristics from their parent
material, but as they age, the addition of organic matter, exposure to moisture and other
environmental factors may change its features. With time, they settle and are buried deeper below
the surface, taking time to transform. Eventually, they may change from one soil type to another.
Climate -
• This is probably the most important factor that can shape the formation of soils. Two important
climatic components, temperature and precipitation are key. They determine how quickly weathering
will be, and what kind of organic materials may be available on and inside of the soils. Moisture
determines the chemical and biological reactions that will occur as the soils are formed. A warmer
climate with more rainfall means more vegetative cover and more animal action. It also means more
runoff, more percolation and more water erosion. They all help to determine the kind of soils in an
area.
 Relief -
• This refers to the landscape position and the
slopes it has. Steep, long slopes mean water
will run down faster and potentially erode
the surfaces of slopes. The effect will be
poor soils on the slopes, and richer deposits
at the foot of the slopes. Also, slopes may be
exposed to more direct sunlight, which may
dry out soil moisture and render it less
fertile.
• The characteristics that make major soil types distinctive and different from one another result from
their Soil-Forming Regimes, which vary mainly because of differences in climate and vegetation. At
the broadcast scale of generalization, climate differences produce three primary Soil-Forming
Regimes: Laterization, Podzolization, and calcification.

• Tropical weathering (laterization) • Podzolization - a process of soil

- is a prolonged process of chemical
weathering which produces a wide
variety in the thickness, grade,
chemistry and ore mineralogy of the
resulting soils. The initial products of
weathering are essentially kaolinized
rocks called saprolites.
formation especially in humid regions
involving principally leaching of the upper
layers with accumulation of material in
lower layers and development of
characteristic horizons specifically : the
development of a podzol.
 Calcium is readily soluble in acid soil
water and/or when CO2
concentration is high in root zone
• Calcification - It is the as:
process of precipitation
and accumulation of CO2 + H2O --> H2CO3
calcium carbonate H2CO3 + Ca --> Ca (HCO3)2 (soluble)
(CaCO3) in some part of Temp.
the profile. The Ca (HCO3)2 --> CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
(precipitates)
accumulation of CaCO3
CO2
may result in the • The process of precipitation after
development of a calcic mobilization under these
horizon. conditions is called calcification
and the resulting illuviated
horizon of carbonates is
designated as Bk horizon (Bca).
• Andisols - is derived from a
Japanese word Ando which means
black soil, are formed from the
weathering of volcanic material in
minerals in the soil characterized
by the poor crystal structure.
The materials forming the
Andisols have a high capacity to
hold nutrients and water making
the soil more fertile and very
productive. Andisols is made up of
weathered soil with much volcanic
glass and occur in areas with
averagely high rainfall and cool
temperatures. They are also
easily erodible, especially on the
slopes of the mountains. Andisols
makes about 1% of the globe and
1.7% of the US glacier-free land.
• Afisols - can be found in
semiarid to moist areas.
• These Soils are result from
weathering process that leach
clay minerals and other
constituents out of the
surfcace layer and into the
suboil, where they can hold and
supply moisture and nutrients
to plants. They formed
primarily under forset or mixed
vegative cover and are
productive for most crops.
Aridisols • Aridisols - are soils that occur
in dry areas that cannot
support plants which are
adapted to regions that are
extremely dry or too wet. The
dry climate under which the
soils are found restrict
weathering processes. Aridisols
contain an accumulation of
minerals and nutrients such as
salt, gypsum, and carbonates.
The soils are found in both hot
and cold deserts worldwide
occupying 12% of the globe and
8.8% of the US glacier-free
land.
• Entisols - is the last order in the
soil taxonomy that inhibits little
or no soil development other than
the availability of the identifiable
topsoil horizon. It is a most
common soil order by surface
area and occurs in areas where
there are recently deposited
sediments where deposition of
the sediments is faster than the
rate of soil development. Entisols
soils are located in the regions
characterized by active flood
plains, landslide areas, dunes, and
even retreating glacier. The soils
are common in almost all the
environments. Entisols makes the
second largest group of soil
occupying 16.3% of the globe and
12.2% of the US glacier-free
land.
• Inceptisols - have almost similar
characteristics as Entisols but
exhibiting a moderate degree of soil
development beginning at the B
horizon. The soil lacks much of clay
and nutrient accumulation in the
subsoil and occurs within a broad
range of parent material and
different weather conditions.
Inceptisols have several different
characteristics because of the wide
distribution and occurrence. The
soils are continuously eroded or
contain young deposits on the
landscape. Inceptisols occupy
approximately 15% of the globe and
9.1% of the US glacier-free land.
• Gelisols, borrowed from Latin word
gelare which means freeze, are
permanently frozen soil or are
permafrost within 100cm or has
evidence of permafrost on or near
the soil surface. The soils are found
in the Arctic and Antarctic regions
as well as places of high elevation.
The permafrost on the soil surface
influences the land use on the
downward movement of water. The
permafrost also restricts the
penetration of plant roots hindering
the growth of most plants. Gelisols
occupy about 9% of the globe and
7.5% of the US glacier-free land.
• Histosols - soils are composed
of the organic material in the
upper portion and contain soil
commonly called bogs, peat land,
and fens. The soils are formed
when the organic matter like
leaves decomposes slower than
they accumulate due to the slow
microbial decay rates,
especially in extremely wet
areas. Histosols are only
productive when well drained
but are not suitable for the
construction of roads or
foundation for buildings. The
soils make up about 1% of the
globe and 1.3% of the US
glacier-free land.
• Mollisols - are grassland soils
that are dark colored on the
surface and are highly fertile
and rich in chemicals such as
calcium and magnesium. The
dark surface of the Mollisols is
as a result of the continuous
addition of the organic matter
to the already existing soil by
the roots of plants such as a
prairie. Mollisols soils are
common in areas characterized
by dry climatic seasons making
up approximately 7% of the
globe and 22% of the US
glacier-free land often the
grassland areas.
• Oxisols - are soils found in
the tropical and subtropical
regions dominated by iron oxide
and highly weathered clay
minerals. The soils have a well-
developed profile and are
located on gently sloping land
surfaces that have been stable
for a while. Oxisols are
featureless without clearly
marked layers or horizons. The
soils are of low nutrient content
and fertility because of the
high weathering but can be
made more productive by use of
fertilizers. Oxisols soils cover
about 8% of the globe and less
than 0.01% of the US glacier-
free land.
• Ultisols - are soils formed in
humid areas through intense
weathering. The soils contain
subsoil horizon with
translocated clay and are acidic
in nature. Most nutrients in the
Ultisols are held on the surface
of the soil, but the soil is
generally of low fertility and
can only be more productive if
fertilizers are applied. Ultisols
occupies about 8% of the globe
and 9.6% of the US glacier-
free land.
• Vertisols is a term that traces its
origin from a Latin word verto
which means turn. Vertisols soils
are clay-rich that shrinks and
swells dramatically. The soil
shrinks as it dries and swells as it
gets wet. Vertisols forms a large
crack that maybe more than one
meter deep and several
centimeters wide when dry. These
deep cracks are often referred to
as gilgai. The soil is fertile
because of the high clay content.
However, water is retained on the
surface when wet. Vertisols
occupy about 2.4% of the global
surface and 1.7% of the US
glacier-free surface.