Unit 2

Overview of Sensors, Transducers

and Their Characteristics
Specifications
What is a Sensor and Transducer?

• The sensor is a device, that senses a physical quantity

and converts it into an analogue quantity which can be
measured electrically such as voltage, capacitance,
inductance and ohmic resistance.
• The output needs to be operated, interfaced &
regulated by the system designer
• The transducer is a device that is connected to sensor
to convert the measured quantity into a standard
electrical signal such as 0-10V DC, -10 to +10V DC, 4 to
20mA, 0 to 20mA, 0-25mA etc.
• The o/p of the transducer can be directly used by the
system designer.
• WHAT IS TRANSDUCER ?

• The transducer is defined as the device which convert

the one form of energy into another form of the
energy

Example:
• Temperature transducers
• Thermocouples
• Resistance-Temperature Detectors (RTD)
• Thermistors
• Resistive position transducers
• Displacement transducers
• Strain gauge
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

• Primary and secondary transducers.

• Passive and active transducers.
• Analog and digital transducers.
• Transducers and inverse transducers
BASIC CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSDUCERS

Input Output
Sensing Element Transduction Element

Sensing Element – Physical change or rate of change sensed and

transformed from this part

Transduction Element – It convert non electrical signal into its

proportional electrical signal
SELECTION CRITERIA OF THE TRANSDUCERS

• Operating principle
• Sensitivity
• Operating range
• Accuracy
• Errors
• Environmental capability
• Insensitive to unwanted Signal
• Stability
 Specification of Temperature, Force
and Motion Sensor

• Temperature Sensor
Range Accuracy Resolution
Type Conditioner Calibration
Drift Level Power
 Specification of Temperature, Force
and Motion Sensor

• Force Sensor
Actuation Force Sensitivity Range
Resolution Size
Hysteresis Temp. Operating Range
No. of Actuations
 Specification of Temperature, Force
and Motion Sensor

• Motion Sensor
Precision Accuracy Range
Sample Rate Dead Time Transducer Rotation
Mount Clearance Resolution
Timing Accuracy
 Force Cell – Load Cell, Cantilever Beam
What is a Load Cell?
• A load cell is a transducer that is used to convert a force into
electrical signal.

• The various types of load cells include hydraulic load cells,

pneumatic load cells and strain gauge load cells.

• The most common type is a strain gauge load cell

 Working principal of Strain gauge load cell
• It is based on the strain/resistance relationship of electrical
conductors.

• Any electrical conductor changes its resistance with mechanical stress,

e.g. through tension or compression forces.

• The resistance change is partially due to the conductor's deformation

and partially due to the change in the resistivity of the conductor
material as a result of micro structural changes.

• Wheatstone bridge circuit is used to design strain gauge, The output is

derived from imbalance in the bridge circuit as load is sensed by sensor.
• Wheatstone bridge is an electric circuit suitable for detection of
minute resistance changes, therefore used to measure resistance
changes of a strain gage

• The bridge is configured by combining four resistors. Initially

R1=R2=R3=R4, in this condition no output voltage is there, e/v=0
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE CALCULATIONS
• When one of the Resistances is replaced by strain Gauge attached to
the object whose strain is to be measured and load is applied, then
there is small change in the resistance of gauge, hence some output
voltage is there which can be related to strain as

• From this, strain can be easily determined using the relation

 POSSIBLE SOURCES OF ERROR IN STRAIN GAUGE LOAD CELL
SIGNALS

• Improper Loading and Orientation

• Wrapping of bearing plates
• Friction between bearing plate and load cell
• Cross-sensitivity
• Bonding faults
• Hysteresis
• Effects of moisture
• Temperature change
 Piezoelectric Sensor
Piezoelectric transducers are based on the property of accumulating
charges if stressed (direct effect)and to strain in case of an electric signal
is applied across their electrods (inverse effect)
PROXIMITY SENSORS
 Definition & Types
• It detects the presence or absence of object using
electromagnetic field, light and sound.

•Types:
–Inductive
–Capacitive
–Magnetic
–Ultrasonic
–Photo Electric
 Uses
• Parking assist
– Avoid damage to autobody
– Better utilization of parking
spaces
• Lane change & overtake
• Pre-crash sensing (front &
rear)
– Airbag deployment
– Automatic intervention for
collision avoidance
• Adaptive Cruise Control
 Inductive Proximity Sensors
• Inductive proximity sensors operate under the electrical principle of
inductance.
• Inductance is the phenomenon where a fluctuating current, which by
definition has a magnetic component, induces an electromotive force (emf)
in a target object.
• To amplify a device’s inductance effect, a sensor manufacturer twists wire
into a tight coil and runs a current through it.
• An inductive proximity sensor has four components; The coil, oscillator,
detection circuit and output circuit.
• The oscillator generates a fluctuating magnetic field the shape of a
doughnut around the winding of the coil that locates in the device’s sensing
face.
• When a metal object moves into the inductive proximity sensor’s field of
detection, Eddy circuits build up in the metallic object, magnetically push
back, and finally reduce the Inductive sensor’s own oscillation field.
• The sensor’s detection circuit monitors the oscillator’s strength and triggers
an output from the output circuitry when the oscillator becomes reduced to
a sufficient level.
 Capacitive Sensor
• Noncontact capacitive sensors measure the changes
in an electrical property called capacitance.
• Capacitance describes how two conductive objects
with a space between them respond to a voltage
difference applied to them. A voltage applied to the
conductors creates an electric field between them,
causing positive and negative charges to collect on
each
• If the polarity of the voltage is reversed, the charges
will also reverse.
• Capacitive sensors use an alternating voltage that causes the charges to
continually reverse their positions.

• The movement of the charges creates an alternating electric current that is

detected by the sensor (Figure 2). The amount of current flow is
determined by the capacitance, and the capacitance is determined by the
surface area and proximity of the conductive objects.

• Larger and closer objects cause greater current than smaller and more
distant objects.

• Capacitance is also affected by the type of nonconductive material in the

gap between the objects. Technically speaking, the capacitance is directly
proportional to the surface area of the objects and the dielectric constant of
the material between them, and inversely proportional to the distance
between them as shown in equation
• Capaciatnce = (Area * Dielectric ) / Distance
 Ultrasonic Sensor
• Ultrasonic sensors are based on measuring the properties of sound
waves with frequency above the human audible range.

• Systems typically use a transducer which generates sound waves in

the ultrasonic range, above 18 kHz.

• By turning electrical energy into sound, then upon receiving the

echo turn the sound waves into electrical energy which can be
measured.

• Ultrasonic sensors are non-intrusive in that they do not require

physical contact with their target, and can detect certain clear or
shiny targets otherwise obscured to some vision-based sensors.
Ultrasonic Sensor
Photo Electric Sensor
 LVDT
• The linear variable-differential transformer(LVDT) is the
most widely used inductive transducer to translate
linear motion into electrical signal.

Primary Secondary

A
A

B B
Vout  VA  VB
 LVDT
• The transformer consists of a primary winding P and two secondary winding
S1 and S2wound on a cylindrical former.

• Both the secondary windings have equal number of turns and are
identically placed on the either side of primary winding

• The primary winding is connected to an AC source which produces a flux in

the air gap and voltages are induced in secondary windings.

• A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former and displacement to be
measured is connected to the iron core.

• The both the secondary windings are connected in such a way that resulted
output is the difference of the voltages of two windings.
 LVDT
• CASE I - When the core is at null position (for no displacement) The flux
linking with both the secondary windings is equal so the induced emf is
equal in both the windings. So for no displacement the value of output
eout is zero as e1and e2 both are equal. So it shows that no displacement
took place.

• CASE II - When the core is moved to upward of null position (For

displacement to the upward of reference point) The flux linking with
secondary winding S1 is more as compared to flux linking with S2. Due to
this e1 will be more as that of e2. Due to this output voltage eout is positive.

• CASE III - When the core is moved to downward of Null position (for
displacement to the downward of reference point). In this case magnitude
of e2 will be more as that of e1. Due to this output eout will be negative and
shows the output to downward of reference point.
 LVDT
Advantages of LVDT are as follows:

• It produces higher output voltages for small changes in core position

• Low cost

• Solid and robust -capable of working in a wide variety of environments

• No permanent damage to the LVDT if measurements exceed the

designed range.
Applications of LVDT
 RVDT
(Rotary variable differential transformer)
• The RVDT is used to sense the angular displacement.
• It is similar to LVDT except that its core is in cam shaped and moves
between the windings by means of shaft.
 RVDT

• The RVDT consists of one primary winding and two

secondary windings.

• The emf induced in the secondary winding is a function of rotary

displacement.

• The both secondary windings are placed in such a way to produce emf
180 degree out of phase to each other.
 RVDT
Condition1:
When shaft is at null position as shown in above fig, the emf induced in both the
secondary windings are equal but opposite in phase. Therefore, the differential output
potential is zero.
E1 = E2
E0 = E1-E2 = 0

Condition 2:
When the shaft moves in clockwise direction, more portion of the core comes across
the winding S1. Hence, the emf induced across the coil S1 is more than S2. The
differential output potential is positive.
E1 > E2
E0 = E1-E2 = positive

Condition 3:
When shaft moves in anticlockwise direction, more portion of the core comes across
the winding S2. Hence, the emf induced across the coil S2 is more as compared to
S1. Therefore, the differential output potential shows 180 degree phase shift i.e.
negative.
E1 < E2
E0 =E1-E2 = negative
 Fiber Optic Temperature Sensor
• Fiber optical thermometer can be used in electromagnetically strongly
influenced environment, in microwave fields, power plants or explosion-
proof areas and wherever measurement with electrical temperature
sensors is not possible.

• Using GaAs. (Intrinsic)

•Using Fiber Bragg Gratings (Extrinsic)
 Temperature Measurement with fiber Optics
and GaAs
• Fiber-optic temperature sensors are based on the light absorption/
transmission properties of gallium arsenide (GaAs).

• The effects of temperature variations on this semiconducting crystal are

well known and predictable.

• At the measurement end of the fiber-optic temperature sensor is a GaAs

crystal. As the crystal’s temperature increases, its transmission spectrum
(i.e., the light that is not absorbed) shifts to higher wavelengths.

• At any given temperature, transmission jumps from essentially 0% to

100% at a specific wavelength. This jump is called the absorption shift.

• The relationship between the temperature and the specific wavelength at

which the absorption shift takes place is very predictable.
• A fiber-optic temperature probe must be in contact with the material it
is measuring.
• The more intimate the contact, the faster the crystal will respond to
the temperature changes.
• A tiny crystal of GaAs with a dielectric mirror is bonded to one end of a
cleaved optical fiber.
•Teflon is then used to cover the entire assembly, serving as an excellent
buffer.
 Temperature Measurement with Fiber Bragg
Grating (FBG)
• One of the most commonly used and broadly deployed optical sensors
is the fiber Bragg grating (FBG), which reflects a wavelength of light
that shifts in response to variations in temperature and/or strain.

• FBGs are constructed by using holographic interference or a phase

mask to expose a short length of photosensitive fiber to a periodic
distribution of light intensity.

• The refractive index of the fiber is permanently altered according to

the intensity of light it is exposed to. The resulting periodic variation in
the refractive index is called a fiber Bragg grating.
• At each periodic refraction change a small amount of light is reflected.

• All the reflected light signals combine coherently to one large

reflection at a particular wavelength when the grating period is
approximately half the input light's wavelength.

• This is referred to as the Bragg condition, and the wavelength at which

this reflection occurs is called the Bragg wavelength

• Light signals at wavelengths other than the Bragg wavelength, which

are not phase matched, are essentially transparent (Transmitted from
FBG).
• Hence only those wavelengths that satisfy the Bragg condition are affected
and strongly back-reflected.
• The ability to accurately preset and maintain the grating wavelength is a
fundamental feature and advantage of fiber Bragg gratings.

• The central wavelength of the reflected component satisfies the Bragg

relation: λrefl=2nΛ,
n = The index of refraction
Λ = The period of the index of refraction variation of the FBG. (Upper Case
Letter of Lambda).

• Due to the temperature and strain dependence of the parameters n and Λ,

the wavelength of the reflected component will also change as function of
temperature and/or strain .
 Ultrasonic Transducers for Position, Level and
Flow Measurement

1. Position Measurement
• By measuring the time between sending a signal an
receiving an echo, the distance of an object can be
calculated

• Position sensor provides information on an absolute

position of a target or moving object.
• Distance measurement sensors are used to control or
indicate the position of objects and materials.
• A proportional analog signal is often sent to a PLC or
motor drive, such as a web or cable loop control, to
synchronize the material transfer between two
machines.
• Distance feedback can be displayed to an operator to
manually position a vehicle or object being handled.
 Ultrasonic Transducers for Position, Level and
Flow Measurement
2. Level Measurement
• Ultrasonic level measurement is contactless principle and
most suitable for level measurements of hot, corrosive
and boiling liquids.
• The normal frequency range used for ultrasonic level
measurements is within a range of 40 200 KHz.
• Ultrasonic waves detect an object in the same way as
Radar does it.
• Ultrasonic uses the sound waves, and Radar uses radio
waves.
• When ultrasonic pulse signal is targeted towards an object, it is
reflected by the object and echo returns to the sender. The time
travelled by the ultrasonic pulse is calculated, and the distance of the
object is found.
• The reference level for all measurements is the bottom of the tank.
Level to be detected is marked as “C”, and “B” is the distance of the
ultrasonic sensor from the liquid level.
• Ultrasonic pulse signals are transmitted from the transmitter, and it is
reflected back to the sensor. Travel time of the ultrasonic pulse from
sensor to target and back is calculated.
• Level “C” can be found by multiplying half of this time with the speed
of sound in air. The measuring unit final result can be centimeters,
feet, inches etc.
• Level = Speed of sound in air x Time delay / 2
Advantages of Ultrasonic Level Transmitter:
• Ultrasonic level transmitter has no moving parts, and it can measure
level without making physical contact with the object.
• This typical characteristic of the transmitter is useful for measuring
levels in tanks with corrosive, boiling and hazardous chemicals.
• The accuracy of the reading remains unaffected even after changes in
the chemical composition or the dielectric constant of the materials
in the process fluids.
Limitations of Ultrasonic Level Transmitter:
• It is not so convenient if the tank depth is high or the echo is
absorbed or dispersed.
• The object should not be sound absorbing type. It is also unsuitable
for tanks with too much smoke or high density moisture.
 Ultrasonic Transducers for Position, Level and
Flow Measurement
3. Flow Measurement
• Ultrasonic flow measurement can be work on two
different principals and classify accordingly.
- Using Doppler Effect
- Using Time of Flight Mechanism
 Doppler Effect to measure flow of water
• The Doppler Effect Ultrasonic Flow meter use reflected
ultrasonic sound to measure the fluid velocity.
• By measuring the frequency shift between the ultrasonic
frequency source, the receiver, and the fluid carrier, the
relative motion are measured.
• The resulting frequency shift is named the Doppler Effect.
• Fluid velocity can be calculated as
• v = c (fr - ft) / (2 ft cosΦ)
• where
• fr = received frequency
• ft = transmission frequency
• v = fluid flow velocity
• Φ = relative angle between the transmitted ultrasonic beam
and the fluid flow
• c = velocity of sound in the fluid
• This method require there is some reflecting particles in the
fluid. The method is not suitable for clear liquids.
 The Time of Flight Ultrasonic Flow meter
• Time for the sound to travel between a transmitter and
a receiver is measured. This method is not dependable
on the particles in the fluid.

• Two transmitters / receivers (transceivers) are located

on each side of the pipe. The transmitters sends
pulsating ultrasonic waves in a predefined frequency
from one side to the other. The difference in frequency
is proportional to the average fluid velocity.
The fluid velocity can be expressed as
v = [(t2 - t1) / (t2 t1)] (l / 2cosΦ)

v = fluid flow velocity (m/s)

t1 = transmission time downstream (s)
t1 = transmission time upstream (s)
l = distance between sensors (m)
Φ = the relative angle between the transmitted ultrasonic beam and the
fluid flow
 Gas Sensors
• It Detects the presence of gases in an area
• These are used for safety purposes
• These are used to detect different types of gases like
combustible, flammable, and toxic gases.
• Classification according to type of gases detected ::
- Catalytic Gas Detector
- Metal Oxide gas Detector
- Electro-Chemical Gas Detector
 Catalytic Gas Detector/Sensors
• Catalytic-type gas sensor consist of two elements: a
detector element (D) which contains catalytic material and
is sensitive to combustible gases, and a compensator
element (C) which is inert.
• Combustible gases will burn only on the detector element, causing a
rise in its temperature and, as a consequence, a rise in its resistance.
• Combustible gases will not burn on the compensator—its
temperature and resistance remain unchanged in the presence of
combustible gases.
• Normally a Wheatstone bridge circuit is formed with both elements
• A variable resistor (VR) is adjusted to maintain a state of balance of
the bridge circuit in clean air free of combustible gases.
• When combustible gases are present, only the resistance of the
detector element will rise, causing an imbalance in the bridge circuit,
thus producing an output voltage signal (Vout).
• The output voltage signal is proportional to the concentration of
combustible gases.
• Gas concentration can be determined by measuring the output
voltage.
 MOS Gas Detector/Sensors

STEP1
In clean air, donor electrons in tin dioxide are attracted toward oxygen
which is adsorbed on the surface of the sensing material, preventing
electric current flow.

STEP2
In the presence of reducing gases, the surface density of adsorbed oxygen
decreases as it reacts with the reducing gases. Electrons are then released
into the tin dioxide, allowing current to flow freely through the sensor.
• In the most extreme case where oxygen concentration is 0%,
when metal oxide sensor material is heated at high temperature
such as 400˚C, free electrons flow through the conjoined parts of
tin dioxide crystals.

• In clean air oxygen is adsorbed on the metal oxide surface. With

its high electron affinity, adsorbed oxygen attracts free electrons
inside the metal oxide, forming a potential barrier at the grain
boundaries.

• This potential barrier prevents electron flow, causing high

sensor resistance in clean air.

• When the sensor is exposed to combustible gas or reducing gas

(such as carbon monoxide), the oxidation reaction of such gas
with adsorbed oxygen occurs at the surface of tin dioxide.
• As a result, the density of adsorbed oxygen on the tin
dioxide surface decreases, and the height of the potential
barrier is reduced. Electrons easily flow through the
potential barrier of reduced height, and the sensor
resistance decreases.

• Gas concentration in air can be detected by measuring

the resistance change of MOS-type gas sensors.

• The chemical reaction of gases and adsorbed oxygen on

the tin dioxide surface varies depending on the reactivity
of sensing materials and working temperature of the
sensor.
 Electrochemical Gas Detector/Sensor
• The basic components of two electrode gas sensors are a working
(sensing) electrode, a counter electrode, and an ion conductor in between
them.
• When toxic gas such as carbon monoxide (CO) comes in contact with the
working electrode, oxidation of CO gas will occur on the working electrode
through chemical reaction with water molecules in the air.

CO + H2O → CO2＋ 2H+ + 2e-

• Connecting the working electrode and the counter electrode through a

short circuit will allow protons (H+) generated on the working electrode to
flow toward the counter electrode through the ion conductor. In addition,
generated electrons move to the counter electrode through the external
wiring. A reaction with oxygen in the air will occur on the counter electrode

（1/2O2 + 2H+ + 2e- → H2O

• The overall reaction is shown in Equation below. Electrochemical-type gas
sensor operate like a battery with gas being the active material for this overall
battery reaction.
CO + （1/2）O2 → CO2

• By measuring the current between the working electrode and the counter
electrode, this electrochemical cell can be utilized as a gas sensor.
 Wind Sensor
• Gyroscope
• Accelerometer
• Magnetometer
 Wind Sensor - Gyroscope
• A gyroscope is a device used for measuring or
maintaining orientation and angular velocity.
• It is a spinning wheel or disc in which the axis of rotation is free to
assume any orientation by itself.
• When rotating, the orientation of this axis is unaffected by tilting or
rotation of the mounting, according to the conservation of angular
momentum.
• A gyroscope is a wheel mounted in two or three gimbals, which are
pivoted supports that allow the rotation of the wheel about a single
axis.
• A set of three gimbals, one mounted on the other with orthogonal
pivot axes, may be used to allow a wheel mounted on the innermost
gimbal to have an orientation remaining independent of the
orientation, in space, of its support.
• In the case of a gyroscope with two gimbals, the outer gimbal, which is
the gyroscope frame, is mounted so as to pivot about an axis in its own
plane determined by the support.

•The inner gimbal is mounted in the gyroscope frame (outer gimbal) so

as to pivot about an axis in its own plane that is always perpendicular to
the pivotal axis of the gyroscope frame (outer gimbal).
• The axle of the spinning wheel defines the spin axis. The rotor is
constrained to spin about an axis, which is always perpendicular to
the axis of the inner gimbal. So the rotor possesses three degrees
of rotational freedom and its axis possesses two.
• The wheel responds to a force applied to the input axis by a
reaction force to the output axis.
• Applications of gyroscopes include inertial navigation
systems, such as in the Hubble telescope, or inside the steel
hull of a submerged submarine.
• Due to their precision, gyroscopes are also used to maintain
direction in tunnel mining.
• Gyroscopes can be used to construct gyrocompasses, which
complement or replace magnetic compasses (in ships, aircraft
and spacecraft, vehicles in general), to assist in stability
(bicycles, motorcycles, and ships) or be used as part of an
inertial guidance system.
A gyroscope in operation. Note the Animation of a gyro wheel in action
freedom of rotation in all three axes. The
rotor will maintain its spin axis direction
regardless of the orientation of the outer
frame
 Wind Sensor- Accelerometer
• An accelerometer is an electromechanical device that
measures proper acceleration forces. These forces may be
static like the constant force of gravity pulling at your feet, or
they could be dynamic – caused by moving and vibrating the
accelerometer.

•The working principle of an accelerometer is based on

Piezoelectric effect (due to accelerative forces) and on the
Displacement sensing (based on displacement of mass).
• In most of the cases working of an Accelerometer is based
on voltage generation and its further calculations which leads
to the determination of acceleration where as some other
involve the measurement of displacement of mass.

• There are basically two types of accelerometer frequently

used for measurement of acceleration:-

 Piezoelectric accelerometer
 Displacement sensing or seismic type accelerometer
• Piezoelectric accelerometer sensor consist of piezoelectric
crystal sand witched between two electrodes with a mass
placed on it

•Electrode and Mass is attached with spring against the

crystal for acceleration determination.

• change in spring position leads to voltage generation and

fluctuation in voltage leads to measurement of imposed
acceleration.
 Application of Accelerometer

 Acceleration and vibration calculation in vehicles

 In industries for monitoring machines

 Building and structural monitoring

 Medical application and navigation

 Transport
 Wind Sensor - Magnetometer
• A magnetometer is an instrument that measures magnetism—either
the magnetization of a magnetic material like a ferromagnet, or the direction,
strength, or relative change of a magnetic field at a particular location.

• A compass is a simple type of magnetometer, one that measures the

direction of an ambient magnetic field.

• Magnetometers are widely used for measuring the Earth's magnetic field and
in geophysical surveys to detect magnetic anomalies of various types.

•They are also used in the military to detect submarines.

There are two basic types of magnetometer measurement.

Vector magnetometers measure the vector components of a

magnetic field.

Total field magnetometers or scalar magnetometers measure the

magnitude of the vector magnetic field.

The compass is a simple Helium Vector Magnetometer

(HVM) of the Pioneer 10 and 11
type of magnetometer.
spacecraft
 Smart Sensors

• sensors and instrument packages that are

microprocessor driven and include features such as
communication capability and on-board diagnostics
that provide information to a monitoring system
and/or operator to increase operational efficiency
and reduce maintenance costs.
Schematic Representation of Smart Sensor
 Radiation Sensors
• Radiation Detector or particle detector is a device that measure this
ionization of beta radiation, gamma radiations and alpha radiation with
matter which create electrons and positively charged ions.

• Since we cannot see, smell or taste radiation, we are dependent on

instruments to indicate the presence of ionizing radiation.

• Radiation Detector is a instrument used to detect or identify high-energy

particles, such as those produced by nuclear decay, cosmic radiation, or
reactions in a particle accelerator.

•Radioactivity is a natural and spontaneous process by which the unstable

atoms of an element emit or radiate excess energy in the form of particles
or waves.

•These emissions are collectively called ionizing radiations.

 Radiation Sensors
• Radioactivity is a natural and spontaneous process by which the unstable
atoms of an element emit or radiate excess energy in the form of particles or
waves. These emissions are collectively called ionizing radiations.

• Ionization is a particular characteristic of the radiation produced when

radioactive elements decay.

• These radiations are of such high energy that when they interact with
materials, they can remove electrons from the atoms in the material.

• This effect is the reason why ionizing radiation is hazardous to health, and
provides the means by which radiation can be detected.
 How Does a Radiation Detector Work?
Scintillation Detector
•The basic principle behind this instrument is the use of a special material
which glows or "scintillates" when radiation interacts with it.

•The most common type of material is a type of salt called sodium-iodide.

•The light produced from the scintillation process is reflected through a clear
window where it interacts with device called a photomultiplier tube.

•The first part of the photomultiplier tube is made of another special material
called a photocathode.

•The photocathode produces electrons when light strikes its surface.

•These electrons are then pulled towards a series of plates called dynodes
through the application of a positive high voltage.
 How Does a Radiation Detector Work?

• When electrons from the photocathode hit the first dynode, several electrons
are produced for each initial electron hitting its surface.

• This "bunch" of electrons is then pulled towards the next dynode, where
more electron "multiplication" occurs.

• The sequence continues until the last dynode is reached, where the electron
pulse is now millions of times larger then it was at the beginning of the tube.

• At this point the electrons are collected by an anode at the end of the tube
forming an electronic pulse.

• The pulse is then detected and displayed by the instrument.