Continuity of life & genetic

control
• Schleiden & Schwann  Cell theory
• Rudolph Virchow (1855)  omnis cellula
e cellula (every cell is from a cell)
• All living things are composed of cells. The
number of cells within an organism is
phenomenal.
• In every living organism each cell's nucleus
contains all of the genetic information needed to
replicate the cell.
• The genetic material within the cell's nucleus
takes the form of chromosomes.
• A chromosome is composed of DNA and
contains all of the hereditary information of a
cell.
• All living organisms have two different types of
cells:
– gametes (sex cells)  meiosis
– somatic cells (body cells) mitosis
• When united with a corresponding gamete, the
genetic material of both combine to form a full
set of chromosomes.
• The new set of chromosomes are used as a
"blueprint" for cells to replicate into an organism.
The average human cell has 46 chromosomes
total, however the gametes contain 23. When
the gamete is combined with another gamete,
the gamete pair join to form a new cell with 46
chromosomes.
1.
Chromosomes
• Composed of
– DNA, proteins, small amount of RNA
(eukaryotic cells)
• DNA  negative charge
• Protein (histones)  positive charges
• Chromatin  DNA – protein complex
DNA replication
• Watson & Crick (1953)  DNA has double
helical structure
• The 2 strands were capable of unwinding
and separating, and acting as templates to
which a complimentary set of nucleotides
would attach by base pairing.
• Each original DNA molecule  2 copies
with identical structure
Theory of DNA replication (fig 22.17)

• Conservative
• Dispersive
• Semi-conservative (proposed by Watson &
Crick)  each new double helix retain one
strand of the original DNA double helix
The Genetic code
• The amino acid sequence of protein
molecules
• DNA molecule  4 nucleotide bases
– Adenine (A)
– Guanine (G) Arrange polynucleotide strand
– Thymine (T) Carrying code for protein synthesis
– Cytosine (C)
The main feature of the genetic code
• Triplet fig 22.20
• Universal
• Degenerate
• Non overlapping fig 22.21
 Genetic Code “TRIPLET BASES”
Fist U C A G Third
Base Base
Phe Ser Tyr Cys U
Phe Ser Tyr Cys C
U Leu Ser END END A
Leu Ser END Trp G
Leu Pro His Arg U
Leu Pro His Arg C
C Leu Pro Glu Arg A
Leu Pro Glu Arg G
Ile Thr Asn Ser U
Ile Thr Asn Ser C
A Ile Thr Lys Arg A
Met Thr Lys Arg G
Val Ala Asp Gly U
Val Ala Asp Gly C
G Val Ala Glu Gly A
Breaking the code
• The triplet code is translated into the
structure of a protein molecule
• Proteins are long chains molecules called
amino acids.
• Different proteins are made by using
different sequences of amino acids
• Protein synthesis involves the interaction
of 2 types of nucleic acid  DNA & RNA
(rRNA, tRNA, mRNA)

• Protein synthesis  2 stages:

– Transcription
– Translation (initiation – elongation -
termination
The process of protein synthesis depends
on the presence of:
• DNA
• mRNA
• Ribosomes
• tRNA
• Amino acids
• ATP
• Enzymes & cofactors
 PRINCIPLE

GENE of DNA
TRANSCRIPTION RNA
polymerase

m-RNA

TRANSLATION

POLYPEPTIDE

PROTEIN
PROCESSING
FUNCTIONAL
PROTEIN
 Example

5 – ATG-CGC-GGG-AAG - 3

3 – TAC-GCG-CCC –TTC - 5

Transcription in the nucleus

m-RNA

t-RNA Translation in the cytoplasm

5 – AUG-CGC-GGG-AAG - 3
Growing Polypeptide Chain

Met – Arg – Gly – Lys

 Exercise
• Referring to the genetic code, what would be the
amino acids sequence of the polypeptide
encoded by the mRNA sequence :
5 AUGGUGGCCUAUCAUUAGGGGCUU 3

• What would be the effect on translation of the

sequence above, if an extra C were inserted
between the third and fourth bases?

5 AUGCGUGGCCUAUCAUUAGGGGCUU 3
Genetic control
The Jacob – Monod hypothesis  22.29
• Structural gene
• Operator gene
• Regulator gene
Enzyme induction  fig 22.30
• Enzyme repression 22.31