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Active Filters

 Conventional passive filters consist of LCR


networks.
 Inductors are undesirable components:
 They are particularly non-ideal (lossy)
 They are bulky and expensive
 Active filters replace inductors using op-amp
based equivalent circuits.
Active Filter Designs
Three active filter design techniques will be covered:

 Synthesis by Sections
 Cascade of second order sections.
 Component Simulation
 Replace inductors with op-amp inductor simulations.
 Operational Simulation
 Simulate all currents and voltages in the LCR ladder using
an analogue computer.
Analogue Filter Responses

H(f) H(f)

0 f 0 f
fc fc

Ideal “brick wall” filter Practical filter


Standard Transfer Functions
 Butterworth
 Flat Pass-band.
 20n dB per decade roll-off.
 Chebyshev
 Pass-band ripple.
 Sharper cut-off than Butterworth.
 Elliptic
 Pass-band and stop-band ripple.
 Even sharper cut-off.
 Bessel
 Linear phase response – i.e. no signal distortion in pass-
band.
Analogue Transfer Functions
The transfer function of any analogue filter (active
or passive) can be expressed as the ratio of two
polynomials : M 1

N s   s  z m 
H s   K  K mN 01
Ds 
  s  pn 
n 0

Special case when M=0, all-pole response :


K K
H s    N 1
Ds 
  s  pn 
n 0
Poles and Zeros
 Poles
 Complex values of s where the transfer function is infinite.
 i.e. the denominator of the transfer function is zero.
 Zeros
 Complex values of s where the transfer function is zero.
 An N-th order filter will have N poles and up to N
zeros.
 Some poles may be in the same place (as may some
zeros).
Example – Two Pole Bessel Filter

Low pass, cut-off frequency = 1 rad/s, from tables :

1 1
H s   
s 2  1.73s  1 s  p0 s  p1 
where,
p0  0.866  j 0.5
p1  0.866  j 0.5
Operational Amplifiers
 All the active filters we shall study are based
on operational amplifiers (op-amps).
 Analysis of linear op-amp circuits is usually
based on simplifying assumptions :
 The difference between the non-inverting and
inverting inputs is zero.
 The input current is zero.
 The output voltage and current is arbitrary.
Op-Amp Assumptions
I+
V+ + Iout
Vout
I-
V- -

V  V
I  0
I  0
Vout  anything
I out  anything
Inverting Amplifier
Z2
Z1
VIN -
VOUT
+

0V

VIN V
V  V  0  I Z 1  & I Z 2  OUT
Z1 Z2
VIN  VOUT VOUT Z2
I   0 I Z1  I Z 2    
Z1 Z2 VIN Z1
Non-Inverting Amplifier

VIN +
VOUT
-
I  0
Z1 Z2
Z2 V  VOUT  V  VIN
Z1  Z 2
VOUT Z1  Z 2 Z
0V    1 1
VIN Z2 Z2
Buffer Amplifier

VIN + V  VOUT
VOUT V  VIN
-
V  V VOUT  VIN

 Output voltage = Input voltage


 Input impedance is infinite
 Output impedance is zero
Single-Pole Passive Filter
R vout ZC 1 / sC
 
vin R  Z C R  1 / sC
vin C vout
1

sCR  1

 First order low pass filter


 Cut-off frequency = 1/CR rad/s
 Problem : Any load (or source) impedance
will change frequency response.
Single-Pole Active Filter

R
vin C
vout

 Same frequency response as passive filter.


 Buffer amplifier does not load RC network.
 Output impedance is now zero.
Low-Pass and High-Pass Designs

High Pass Low Pass

vout 1 vout 1
 
vin 1
1 vin sCR  1
sCR
Higher Order Filters
 You might think we could make higher order filters by
simply cascading N first order filters
 This doesn’t work
 The single pole of a first order filter must be purely
real (no imaginary part)
 The poles of a higher order filter usually need to be
complex
 Solution: Use second order sections, each one
synthesising a conjugate pair of complex poles
Summary
 Active filter designs aim to replace the
inductors in passive filters.
 Design techniques :
 Synthesis by sections
 Component simulation
 Operational simulation
 All based on op-amps – understanding of
basic op-amp circuits is essential.

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