Gas Turbine Combustion

Dr. Firman Hartono

Gas Turbine Combustion

Setelah mengikuti kuliah ini mahasiswa dapat:

- Menjelaskan reaksi pembakaran
- Menjelaskan metode untuk meningkatkan kestabilan
pembakaran
- Melakukan analisis termodinamika reaksi
pembakaran

Referensi:
- Lefebvre, Gas Turbine Combustion
Combustion Fundamentals

Combustion – Exothermic reaction of a fuel and an

oxidant
Regimes of combustion:
 Preflame Combustion  slow process requires 1 to 100 s to
reach 80 % completion, hence, only part of the latent heat of
combustion is released
 Deflagration  fast process requires less than 1 ms for 80 %
completion, characterized by the presence of flame propagation
normally at velocities below 1 m/s through the unburned
mixture
 Detonation  shock wave proceed at supersonic velocities
ranging from 1 to 4 km/s that is connected with and supported
by a zone of chemical reaction
 Classification of Flames

Premixed Flames Diffusion Flames

 Laminar  Laminar
 Turbulent  Turbulent

 Flame : rapid chemical change occurring in a very thin layer,

involving steep gradients of temperature and species
concentrations, and accompanied by luminescence
 Premixed : fuel and air mixed prior to combustion
 Diffusion : mixed by diffusion in the flame zone
Flammability Limits
• Flammability limits, also called flammable
limits, give the proportion of combustible gases
in a mixture, between which limits this mixture
is flammable. Gas mixtures consisting of
combustible, oxidizing, and inert gases are only
flammable under certain conditions.
• The lower flammable limit (LFL) describes the
leanest mixture that is still flammable, i.e. the
mixture with the smallest fraction of combustible
gas.
• The upper flammable limit (UFL) gives the
richest flammable mixture. Increasing the
fraction of inert gases in a mixture raises the LFL
and decreases UFL.
• Temperature and pressure also influences
flammability limits. Higher temperature results in
lower LFL and higher UFL, while greater
pressure increases both values. The effect of
pressure is very small at pressures below 10
millibar and difficult to predict, since it has
hardly been studied.
Flammability Limits Ex.
Chemical Transformation
For most of gas turbine combustion:
• chemical reaction nearly always occur between gases that can be
approximated in behavior by a perfect gas
• the important chemical processes usually take place between states that
are approximately in equilibrium

The general chemical reaction can be written as follow

Reactants, Tf Reaction chamber Products, Tf

which means a moles of reactant A and b moles of reactant B and so on, combine to
form m moles of product M and n moles of product N and so on
Enthalpy

Enthalpy of formation: Energy exchanged during compound formation

Reference State : T = 25 °C ; P = 1 atm

Enthalpy
Exothermic  reactions which tend to give off heat
(negative enthalpy of reaction)
Endothermic  reactions that require an energy input to proceed

Ex: at 1 atm and 298 K, DH = -393.522 kJ/gmol

Means: to maintain constant temperature during reaction, heat must be

removed from reaction chamber  exothermic process

For reaction at variable temperature:

reactants reactants products products

at T1 at Tf at Tf at T2
Heat Complex Heat
Exchanger reaction chamber Exchanger
 Composition of Products

• Flame temperature can be calculated once the

composition of product is known
Trial-and-error
• Unfortunately, composition of products depend on the
temperature

Ex: non-stoichiometric mixture of octane and oxygen

If no octane and other HC present in products composition, the conservation of mass result:

Carbon : > Low Temperature Solution 

a = 8, b = 9, c = 2.5, other = 0
Hydrogen :
> High Temperature Solution 
Oxygen : require 6 more independent equations

At high temperature, CO2, H2O and O2 dissociate to some extent into free atoms
Chemical Equilibrium
Equilibrium is the state at which the forward and reverse reactions are
occurring at equal rate

forward, the rate of consumption of species A is

reverse, the rate of formation of species A is

the net rate of change of species A

When equilibrium obtains, the

Equilibrium
concentration of A, B, C and D are
constant
Equilibrium Constant

When a mixture of perfect gas is in chemical equilibrium:

then: Equilibrium constant in partial pressures

or: Equilibrium constant in mole fractions

Equilibrium constant of kth reaction can be approximated through:

Mixture Quality
Air
Consider a reaction of butane with air: Nitrogen (79%)
Oxygen (21%)
1 mol O2:3.76 mol N2

Applying conservation of atoms results:

 In a complete combustion, 6.5 moles of air is required to burn 1 mole of

butane  stoichiometric reaction
 lean mixture = the moles of air is greater than its stoichiometric coefficient
 rich mixture = the moles of air is smaller than its stoichiometric coefficient
In a complete combustion, excess oxygen exist in lean mixture, while unburned
fuel exist in rich mixture.
Actually, no complete combustion exist, the excess of fuel present even in a lean
mixture combustion.
Fuel – Air Ratio
Consider a complete stoichiometric reaction of 1 mole of butane with air:

1 mole of butane = 16.043 gr ; 6.5 moles of air = 892.711 gr

 Stoichiometric fuel – air ratio of butane with air is, fst = 0.018
 lean mixture, f < 0.018
 rich mixture, f > 0.018
 The ratio of actual fuel – air ratio to stoichiometric fuel – air ratio is called
Equivalence Ratio (usually for premixed flames)
 The ratio of the mass of fuel to the total mass of mixture is called
Mixture Fraction (usually for non-premixed flames)
Fuel – Air Ratio Approximation

First Law of Thermodynamics

Adiabatic Flame Temperature
Adiabatic flame temperature is the temperature that the flame would attain if
the net energy liberated by the chemical reaction that converts the fresh
mixture into combustion products were fully utilized in heating those products

For an adiabatic, constant pressure, no friction reactor and no dissociation:

where: mixture fraction

mass fraction of species i

unburned mixture temperature

heat of combustion
Flame Temperature

Factors affecting flame temperature:

 Fuel to Air Ratio

theoretically, maximum adiabatic
flame temperature achieved at
stoichiometric ratio 1, dissociation
shifted it to about 1.1
 Initial Temperature
an increase in initial air temperature
will increase the flame temperature
 Pressure
as pressure increased at constant initial temperature, higher flame
temperature results  less dissociation at high pressure
 Fuel Type
specific heat of the combustion products depend on fuel type
Burning Velocity
the rate at which a plane combustion wave will propagate through a flammable
mixture
Measurement of burning velocity:

Flames traveling through stagnant mixtures

Burning velocities of stoichiometric

mixtures of many fuels with air Flames are held stationary in space by a
approach a single common value of counter flow of fresh mixture
about 0.43 m/s at NTP
Burning Velocity (Cont’)
To keep small engine cross
section, the average axial
velocity of gas turbine
combustion chamber is 30 m/s.
Turbulent can raise the burning
velocity to 5 – 8 m/s (still much
slower). Swirl vanes, or flame
holder can anchor and stabilize
the flame.
Combustion Efficiency
Combustion efficiency is defined as:

Inefficiency in combustion means:

1. Waste of fuel
2. Undesirable or harmful pollutant emissions

Since combustion is a reaction of fuel and oxidant, the amount of heat released
in combustion depends basically on:
 Reaction rate  f (fuel type, pressure, temperature, mixture fraction)
 Combustion intensity  f (mixing, turbulence, mixture velocity)
 Fuel – air Ratio

High combustion efficiency achieved at high pressure (fast reaction),

high inlet temperature, high turbulent (good fuel – air mixing) and low
mixture backward velocity (high residence time).
Combustion Efficiency (Cont’)

Combustion efficiency increases as

combustor pressure and temperature
increase and combustor reference
velocity decreases
Combustion Efficiency (Cont’)

Combustion efficiency is affected by fuel type. At high altitude, the

efficiency decreases due to low inlet combustion chamber pressure
Flame Stabilization
• To assure safety and continuous operation of a gas
turbine engine the flame should be well stabilized during
all operating condition
• The basic principle of flame stabilization is to create a
region where the local velocity is equal to the flame
propagation velocity
• Three common methods for gas turbine flame
stabilization are...

bluff-body flame holder opposing jet

introducing swirl
Flame Stabilization (Cont’)
Prime requirements for flame
stabilization:
1. Mixture ratios within
flammability limits
2. Velocities low enough to match
burning velocities
3. Sufficient supply of heat to
maintain reaction in ‘primary
reaction zone’
Bluff Body Flame Stabilization
• In bluff body flame
stabilization, bluff body
is used to create re-
circulating, low axial
velocity and high
turbulent flow at the
primary combustion
zone
• The degree of
stabilization depend on
bluff body shape and
blockage ratio
• Commonly used in
ramjet engine
• or afterburner section of
turbojet or turbofan
engine
Swirling Flow
Swirling flows result from the application of a spiraling motion, with a swirl
velocity component (also known as a tangential or azimuthal velocity component)
being imparted to the flow via the use of swirl vanes, in axial-plus-tangential entry
swirl generator or direct tangential entry into the combustion chamber

Tangential injection
Axial swirl vanes
 The most commonly
used non-dimensional
Swirl  u w rdA parameter to
characterize swirling
S A
Number R  u 2 dSA flows is swirl number

A
In practice
Difficult to
Based on Obtained
Aerodynamic
flow field
Swirl
solution

Based on
swirl generator Geometric
geometry Swirl

2 1   3  1  2
S  2 
tan  h  tan  t  tan  h 
3 1    2
 Swirling Flows Characteristic
 Low swirl number
 Small adverse pressure gradient in radial direction
 Swirling flow so not change the distribution of axial velocity
 No reverse or recirculation flow exist

 High swirl number

 Higher radial adverse pressure gradient
 The existence of adverse pressure gradient in axial direction
 Recirculation exist at extremely high swirl number (more than critical
swirl number)
 The existence of vortex breakdown
 The existence of precession vortex core

Critical swirl number ≈ 0,6

Swirl Stabilization Mechanism

If the radius of the vortex increases in downstream direction, the conservation

of circulation implies an axial increase in pressure in the vortex core which leads
to an axial deceleration. When the axial increase in pressure is sufficient to
bring the axial velocity to zero, a stagnation point appears and vortex
breakdown may take place.
Blow-off
Weak extinction  blow off occur due to
lack of fuel
Rich extinction  blow off due to lack of
oxygen
The region of stable combustion increases
as air fuel ratio near to stoichiometric
 Combustion Chamber
Performance Requirements
 High combustion efficiency
 Stable operation
 Low pressure loss
 Uniform temperature distribution
 Easy starting
 Small size
 Low smoky burner
 Low carbon formation
Combustors usually have:
> outer casing, liner, fuel injection system, ignition system with 2
igniter plug
Chamber geometry objectives
 Improving flame stability
 Reducing chamber size
 Reducing emissions of the oxides
of nitrogen, carbon
monoxide and unburned
hydrocarbon
 Increasing chamber life
 Controlling the temperature
distribution at inlet to the
turbine
Combustion Chamber

Combustors usually have:

Diffuser, outer casing, liner, fuel injection system, ignition system with
2 igniter plug
Operating Principles

Combustion chamber divided

into 3 zones:
 Primary zones
 Secondary zones
 Dilution zones

 About 25 – 35 % of the total airflow is used for combustion

process in primary low velocity zones
 Smoke emissions is reduced by shortening the flame pattern using
swirl technique and better liner material
 About 65 – 75 % airflow is used in secondary and dilution zones to
dilutes and cools the hot primary air
Combustion Chamber Types

Can or Tubular

Through flow

Burner Type Annular Side entry

Reverse flow

Can-annular
Can-type Combustor

 Ease of control of the fuel air ratio

 Simplicity and low cost of
replacement of damaged liner
 Require small air supply for testing
and development
 Large size and weight for large
engine
 Large pressure drop (about 7%)

can-type chambers are now seldom

used for large aircraft gas turbine
engine
Annular-type Combustor

 Ease of ignition
 Minimum total cross sectional area
 Require large airflow rates during
testing
 Minimum length and weight
 Minimum pressure drop (about 5%)
 Difficult to obtain circumferentially
uniform fuel air ratio and outlet
temperature
 Requires less cooling air
Cannular-type Combustor

 Ease of ignition
 Minimum total cross sectional area
 Require large airflow rates during
testing
 Heavier than annular type but lighter
than can type
 Higher pressure drop than annular
type (about 6%)
 Easier to obtain circumferentially
uniform fuel air ratio and outlet
temperature than annular type
Reverse Flow Combustor

 Early model of gas turbine combustors had reverse flow

combustion chamber to keep turbine and compressor close
together
 Reverse flow combustors are now still used usually in small
turboshaft engine
Flame Out

Lean Flame Out

> Usually occurs at low engine speed and low fuel pressure, at high
altitude where the flame from weak mixture can be blown out by
the normal airflow

Rich Flame Out

> Usually occurs during rapid engine acceleration where an overly-
rich mixture causes the combustion pressure to increase so much
that the compressor airflow stagnates and slow down, or even
stops

Turbulent inlet condition and violent flight maneuvers can also

cause compressor stalls which could result in airflow stagnation
and flame out
Combustion Efficiency

Combustors efficiency ranges between 95 to 99 percent and

decrease with increasing altitude for all combustion chamber
type
Effects of Inlet Pressure
on Burner Performance

 Increasing pressure will increase

combustion efficiency and then levels
off to a relatively constant value
 As the pressure decrease, the stable
operating range becomes narrower
until a point is reached below which
burning will not take place
 Reducing the pressure below a set
point tends to upset temperature
uniformity
 Starting is easier in high pressure
 Deposits get worse with increasing
pressure until a point is reached where
they begin to burn off
 As the pressure increased, more air is
required to cool the liner
Effects of Inlet Temperature
on Burner Performance

 Increasing temperature will increase combustion

efficiency until it reaches a value of substantially 100%
 Increasing temperature usually increases the fuel/air
ratio for stable operation
 Starting is easier in high temperature
 Deposits get worse with increasing temperature until a
point is reached where they begin to burn off
 As the temperature increased, more air is required to
cool the liner
Effects of Fuel Air Ratio
on Burner Performance

 Increasing fuel-air ratio will first increase combustion

efficiency, levels off when the mixture in the combustion
zone is close to the ideal value, and then decreases as fuel-
air mixture becomes too rich
 Increasing fuel-air ratio and flow velocity resulting less
uniform temperature distribution
 There is an optimum fuel air ratio for starting, above or
below which ignition becomes increasingly difficult
 Increasing fuel-air ratio has a tendency to increase deposits
 As the fuel-air ratio increased, more air is required to cool
the liner
Effects of Air Velocity
on Burner Performance
 Increasing the flow velocity
beyond a certain point
reduces combustion
efficiency
 Increasing flow velocity
resulting less uniform
temperature distribution
 Increasing flow velocity,
rising pressure loss
 Starting is easier in low
velocity
 Increasing flow velocity
outside the liner tends to
increase external
convection, thereby reducing
liner temperature
Questions?