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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point do dislocations
cause permanent deformation? What materials are
most resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?
• Ceramic Materials: What special provisions/tests are
made for ceramic materials? 1
ELASTIC DEFORMATION
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
F
2
PLASTIC DEFORMATION
(METALS)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
Ft
s
Ao
original area
before loading Stress has units:
N/m2 or lb/in2
4
ENGINEERING STRAIN
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
/2
Lo
wo
/2
L/2 L/2
• Shear strain:
/2
/2 /2
8
STRESS-STRAIN TESTING
• Typical tensile specimen • Typical tensile
test machine
Adapted from Fig. 6.2,
Callister 6e.
• Hooke's Law:
s=Ee
• Poisson's ratio, n:
metals: n ~ 0.33
ceramics: ~0.25
polymers: ~0.40
Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
n: dimensionless
10
OTHER ELASTIC PROPERTIES
t M
• Elastic Shear
modulus, G:
G simple
1 torsion
t=G test
M
• Elastic Bulk P
modulus, K:
P P
pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= DV
E E
G K
2(1 n) 3(1 2n)
12
YOUNG’S MODULI:
COMPARISON
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
Si crystal
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold Glass-soda AFRE(|| fibers)*
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
Magnesium, GFRE(|| fibers)*
40 Tin
Concrete
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10
8 CFRE( fibers)*
6 AFRE( fibers)*
Polyester
4 PET
PS
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4
0.2 LDPE
13
PLASTIC (PERMANENT)
DEFORMATION
(at lower temperatures, T < Tmelt/3)
15
YIELD STRENGTH, sy
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
sy
engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002
16
YIELD STRENGTH: COMPARISON
sy(ceramics)
>>sy(metals)
>> sy(polymers)
Room T values
Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 6e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
17
TENSILE STRENGTH, TS
• Maximum possible engineering stress in tension.
TS(ceram)
~TS(met)
~ TS(comp)
>> TS(poly)
Room T values
Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 6e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
19
DUCTILITY, %EL
L f Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL x100
Lo
Ao A f
• Another ductility measure: %AR x100
Ao
• Note: %AR and %EL are often comparable.
--Reason: crystal slip does not change material volume.
--%AR > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.
20
TOUGHNESS
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)
tensile larger toughness
stress, s (metals, PMCs)
smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers
21
HARDENING
• An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.
22
MEASURING ELASTIC MODULUS
• Room T behavior is usually elastic, with brittle failure.
• 3-Point Bend Testing often used.
--tensile tests are difficult for brittle materials.
Adapted from Fig.
12.29, Callister 6e.
b
rect. circ.
24
TENSILE RESPONSE: ELASTOMER
CASE
Stress-strain curves
adapted from Fig.
15.1, Callister 6e.
Inset figures along
elastomer curve
(green) adapted from
Fig. 15.14, Callister
6e. (Fig. 15.14 is from
Z.D. Jastrzebski, The
Nature and Properties
of Engineering
Materials, 3rd ed.,
John Wiley and Sons,
1987.)
• Increasing
strain rate...
--same effects
as decreasing T.
Adapted from Fig. 15.3, Callister 6e. (Fig. 15.3 is from T.S. Carswell
and J.K. Nason, 'Effect of Environmental Conditions on the
Mechanical Properties of Organic Plastics", Symposium on Plastics,
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1944.)
26
TIME DEPENDENT
DEFORMATION
• Stress relaxation test: • Data: Large drop in Er
(amorphous
--strain to eo and hold. for T > Tg. polystyrene)
--observe decrease in Adapted from Fig.
stress with time. 15.7, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 15.7 is from
A.V. Tobolsky,
Properties and
Structures of
Polymers, John
Wiley and Sons,
Inc., 1960.)
PC +150
27
HARDNESS
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering Properties
and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.)
28
DESIGN OR SAFETY FACTORS
• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
• Factor of safety, N Often N is
sy between
s working 1.2 and 4
N
29
Thermal Expansion
Materials change size when temperature
is changed
Tinitial
initial
Tfinal > Tinitial
Tfinal
final
final initial
α (Tfinal Tinitial )
initial
linear coefficient of
thermal expansion (1/K or 1/°C)
25
Atomic Perspective: Thermal Expansion
Material a (10-6/C)
at room T
• Polymers
Polypropylene 145-180 Polymers have larger
Polyethylene 106-198 a values because of
Polystyrene 90-150 weak secondary bonds
Teflon 126-216
• Metals • Q: Why does a
increasing a
28
SUMMARY
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.