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1. Introduction to Waterflooding
2. Fluid Properties
3. Material Balance Equation
4. Immiscible Displacement
1
INTRODUCTION TO
WATERFLOODING
OIL RECOVERY CATEGORIES
Flow Rate
Overall Recovery
OIL RECOVERY CATEGORIES
The terms, primary, secondary, and tertiary may be
confusing as illustrated below:
(1) Water injection in the North Sea is often implemented from the
start. So, is waterflooding a secondary or primary process?
1. Reservoir Geometry
The areal geometry of the reservoir will influence the
location of wells and, if offshore, will influence the
location and number of platforms required.
2. Fluid Properties
The viscosity of the crude oil is considered the most
important fluid property that affects the degree of success
of a waterflooding project. The oil viscosity has the
important effect of determining the mobility ratio that, in
turn, controls the sweep efficiency.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN
WATERFLOODING
3. Reservoir Depth
Maximum injection pressure will increase with depth. The
costs of lifting oil from very deep wells will limit the
maximum economic water-oil ratios that can be tolerated,
thereby reducing the ultimate recovery factor and increasing
the total project operating costs.
On the other hand, a shallow reservoir imposes a restraint on
the injection pressure that can be used, because this must be
less than fracture pressure.
5. Fluid Saturations
A high oil saturation that provides a sufficient supply of
recoverable oil is the primary criterion for successful
flooding operations. Higher oil saturation at the beginning of
flood operations increases the oil mobility that, in turn, gives
higher recovery efficiency.
Phase Envelopes
PHASE DIAGRAMS
■ Oil properties
▪ Bubble point pressure, pb
▪ Oil FVF (Bo) versus pressure
▪ Solution GOR (Rs) versus pressure
▪ Two-phase FVF (Bt) versus pressure
▪ Coefficient of isothermal compressibility, co
▪ Oil viscosity, 𝜇𝑜
■ Gas properties
▪ Gas deviation factor, z
▪ Gas FVF (Bg) versus pressrue
▪ Gas viscosity (𝜇𝑔 ) versus pressure
▪ Oil and gas composition
Following three lab tests directly measure
PVT parameters:
𝑉2
For 𝑝 ≥ 𝑝𝑏 : ln
𝑉1
𝑐𝑜 = −
𝑝2 − 𝑝1
Parameters measured
▪ Oil formation volume factor (Bo) versus pressure
▪ Solution gas-oil ratio (Rs) versus pressure
▪ Isothermal compressibility (derived property)
DIFFERENTIAL LIBERATION TEST
V Incremental Vg
p Gas Gas o Gas Gas in
Pressure, removed,* removed,** O Gravity solution
psig cc scf il scf
volum
e cc
2620 - - 63.316 - 0.21256
2350 4.396 0.02265 61.496 0.825 0.18991
2100 4.292 0.01966 59.952 0.818 0.17025
1850 4.478 0.01792 58.528 0.797 0.15233
1600 4.960 0.01693 57.182 0.791 0.13540
1350 5.705 0.01618 55.876 0.794 0.11922
1100 6.891 0.01568 54.689 0.809 0.10354
850 8.925 0.01543 53.462 0.831 0.08811
600 12.814 0.01543 52.236 0.881 0.07268
350 24.646 0.01717 50.771 0.988 0.05551
159 50.492 0.01643 49.228 1.213 0.03908
0 0.03908 42.540 2.039 0.0
0 39.572 at 60F
*at 220F and cell pressure
**at 60F and 14.65 psia 0.21256 Vr = 39.572 cc = 0.00024890 bbl
SEPARATOR TEST
resbbl
resbbl
Bob =
STB
SEPARATOR TEST
MATERIAL BALANCE
EQUATION
DISPLACEMENT MECHANISMS
Oil is “pushed” or displaced from within the reservoir towards the
producing wells by two possible types of displacement processes or
mechanisms:
(1) Internal displacement mechanisms: from within the reservoir.
These include gas cap gas expansion, expansion of oil and liberated
solution gas.
(2) External flooding mechanism: from outside the reservoir, e.g.
aquifer influx.
MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
As a result of production of fluids from the reservoir:
1. Reservoir pressure drops, causing gas cap to expand,
lowering the gas-oil contact (GOC).
2. Reservoir pressure drops, causing aquifer pressure to drop
and expand into the reservoir, thus “pushing” the oil-water
contact (OWC) up.
3. As the reservoir pressure drops below the bubble-point
pressure of the oil, gas comes out of solution in the oil zone.
3. Volume C:
decrease in volume due
to expansion of connate
water and reduction in
pore volume.
4. Volume D: decrease in
reservoir volume due to
water influx.
TERMS USED IN MATERIAL
BALANCE EQUATION
TERMS USED IN MATERIAL
BALANCE EQUATION
MBE: VOLUME BALANCE
Underground
𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝐵 =
withdrawal
Underground Withdrawal
MBE: VOLUME BALANCE
𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑜 + 𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜 𝐵𝑔 =
+ 𝑊𝑒 − 𝑊𝑝 𝐵𝑤
MBE
Notes on MBE
This implies m = 0.
The general MBE is reduced to:
MBE
MBE for Gas Reservoirs
(1) Gas-initially-in-place, G
Thus, we have an engineering method to validate the
value of G that is based on geological and petrophysical
information.
(2) Gas ultimate recovery (Gas UR)
This is the most reliable method for estimating gas
ultimate recovery; any other method has to assume a value
for G.
Gas reserves at a particular time t
Reserves = Gas UR - Gp
where Gp = cumulative production at time t
MBE
Drive Indices
𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑜 + 𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜 𝐵𝑔
𝐹 = 𝑁𝐸𝑜
F N E o mE g
A plot of F versus (Eo + mEg) yields a straight line with
slope N and intercept at the origin.
HAVLENA-ODEH
STRAIGHT LINE MBE
Dividng by Eo:
WATERFLOOD MBE
Recall the general MBE:
𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑜 + 𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜 𝐵𝑔 =
𝐵𝑜 − 𝐵𝑜𝑖 + 𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜 𝐵𝑔 𝐵𝑔
𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 ቈ +𝑚 −1
𝐵𝑜𝑖 𝐵𝑔𝑖
+ 𝑊𝑒 − 𝑊𝑝 𝐵𝑤
𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑜 + 𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜 𝐵𝑔 = 𝑊𝑖 − 𝑊𝑝 𝐵𝑤
then:
Now:
𝑑𝑁𝑝 𝑑𝑊𝑝 𝑑𝑊𝑖
𝑞𝑜 = (STB/D) 𝑞𝑤 = (STB/D) 𝑖𝑤 = (STB/D)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
WATERFLOOD MBE
IMMISCIBLE
DISPLACEMENT
FUNDAMENTAL
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Resolving forces at the point of contact for the water - wet case :
os ws ow Cos
CAPILLARY PRESSURE
𝑃𝑐 ℎ = ℎ𝑔 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 − 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙
CAPILLARY PRESSURE
1. Immiscible displacement:
Oil displacement by another fluid, there being no mixing of
the fluids. For example, displacement of oil by water during
waterflooding.
2. Miscible displacement:
Oil displacement by another fluid, the two fluids mixing
upon contact. For example, displacement of oil by carbon
dioxide, the latter dissolving in the former.
Immiscible Displacement
Water saturation as a
function of reservoir
thickness (Dake)
Vertical Equilibrium
Mobility ratio of two fluids (M), that is, water displacing oil, is
defined as:
MOBILITY AND MOBILITY RATIO