MODULE I

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WHAT IS MATERIALS SCIENCE AND
ENGINEERING ?

2
BEGINNING OF MATERIAL SCIENCE…
 Man began to make use of stone-two millions of
years ago-Stone Age.
 Later Bronze Age Iron Age Advanced
materials.
 Biodegradable materials, Nanomaterials,
“Smart” materials- Materials of Future.

3
WHY STUDY MATERIAL SCIENCE?
 To select a material for a given use based on
considerations of cost and performance.
 To understand the limits of materials and the
change of their properties with use.
 To be able to create a new material that will have
some desirable properties.
 To be able to use the material for different
application.

4
CONDUCTORS, SEMICONDUCTORS
AND INSULATORS

5
 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METAL
 In metals, the atoms are so tightly packed that
electron of one atom experience sufficiently
significant force of other closed atoms.
 The result, the valence band and conduction band
in metal come very closer to each outer and may
even overlap.
 Consequently, by receiving very small amount of
energy from external heat or electrical energy
source, the electrons readily ascend to higher levels
in the metal. Such electrons are known as free
electrons.
6
 These free electrons are responsible for current
that flows through a metal.
 When external electric source is connected to a
piece of metal, these free electrons start flowing
towards higher potential terminal of the source,
causing current to flow in the metal.
 In metal, density of free electrons in conduction
band is much higher than other materials, hence
metal is referred as very good electrical
conductor.
 In other words electrical conductivity of metal is
very good.

7
CONDUCTIVITY IN METALS

8
 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF
SEMICONDUCTOR

 In semiconductor the valence band and

conduction band are separated by a forbidden gap
of sufficient width.
 At low temperature, no electron possesses
sufficient energy to occupy the conduction band
and thus no movement of charge is possible.
 But at room temperature it is possible for some
electrons to give sufficient energy and make the
transitions in conduction band.
 The density of electrons in conduction band at
room temperature is not as high as in metals,
9
thus cannot conduct current as good metal.
 The electrical conductivity of semiconductor is not
as high as metal but also not as poor as insulator.
 That is why, this type of material is called
semiconductor means half conductor.

10
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATOR
 Ideally electrical conductivity of an electrical
insulator is nil.
 The atoms in the insulator molecules are
electrically stable enough.
 The outermost shells of these atoms are
completely filled with electrons.
 In such materials where forbidden energy gap is
very large and as a result the energy required by
the electron to crossover to the conduction band
is practically large enough.
 Insulators do not conduct electricity easily.
 That means electrical conductivity of insulator is
11
very poor.
PROPERTIES OF CONDUCTORS
1. Electrical properties
 Conductivity must be good.

 Electrical energy dissipated in the form of heat

must be low.
 Resistivity must be low.

2. Mechanical properties
 Ductility-property by which material can be
drawn into wire.
 Solderability

 Withstand stress and strain.

 Easy to fabricate.
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3. Economical considerations
 Low cost

 Easily available.

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CONDUCTIVITY OF METALS
CONTINUED…

Emission of electrons from metals: four types:

 Thermionic emission

 Photoelectric emission

 Field emission

 Secondary emission

14
 THERMIONIC EMISSION
 It is a process of evaporation which take place when
some of the conduction electrons in the cathode
have enough kinetic energy to escape through its
surface.
 The emission therefore depends on the distribution
of energy among the free electrons in the cathode.
 This distribution of energy is a function of
temperature.

15
 To escape from the metal an electron must have a
component of velocity “µ” at right angles to the
surface, and the corresponding kinetic energy
1
“ 𝑚µ2 ” must be equal to the work done in passing
2
through the surface.
 This is denoted by “𝐸𝑒” the energy corresponding to
the escape level. Since the free electrons in a metal
move at random, no all of those kinetic energies
exceed the value “𝐸𝑒” will have sufficient energy in
the right direction to escape.
 Only a certain portion will do so and these will
constitute the thermionic emission

16
 The thermionic emission from the metal is
proportional to the heavily shaded area, i.e, at a
given temperature, the number of electrons
represented by the shaded area will be able to
leave the metal surface. If the “tail” of the curve
does not extend beyond the value 𝐸𝑒 the
thermionic emission will be zero.
 Once the point has reached the emission rapidly
increases with temperature.

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18
19
 PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION

 The photoelectric emission is the process through

which the free electrons are liberated from the
surface of metals when it absorbs light.
 The photoelectric emission depends on the
frequency of light and not on the intensity of
light.
 When the light energy incident on the surface of
that metals, the electrons gets energised and
starts emitting.
 The electrons which emitted through this way is
known as the photoelectrons
20
 The energy of photons incident on the surface
depends on the frequency of the light and is
expressed as,
 where ‘h’ is the plank’s constant and their value
is equal to the 6.626Χ10-34joule-second, f shows
the frequency of light in the hertz.
 The energy requires for emission of electrons =
eΦ
 Where e – electrons charge and

 φ – work function of electrons in volts.

 Hence the photons which cause emission is given

by the expression

21
 FIELD EMISSION
 Field emission or cold emission occurs when the
direction of the applied electric field is such that it
attracts electrons out of the metal.
 The potential energy at the surface of the metal is
( + 𝐸𝐹 )
 This is the energy required for the extraction of the
electron from the metal

22
 SECONDARY EMISSION
 When a solid surface is bombarded by electrons or
ions of appreciable energy, secondary electrons are
emitted from the surface.
 If the primary or bombarding electrons have
energies of the order of a few electron volt, they are
able to emit appreciable secondary electrons.
 If the primary electrons have higher energies, the
number of secondary electrons emitted is much
larger than that of the primary electrons.
 Secondary emission is very sensitive to impurities
and to contamination of emitting surfaces.

23
 The ratio of number of secondary electrons to the
number of incident primary electrons is termed
the secondary emission ratio.
 The maximum value of this ratio for metals
varies from 0.5 to 1.6

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25
26
VARIATION OF CONDUCTIVITY WITH
TEMPERATURE AND COMPOSITION

27
 As temperature increases, atomic vibrations will
increase, which will cause more collisions of the
electrons with the crystal lattice, that will reduce
velocity as drift motion is subjected to more
disruption.
 The imperfections /disorders in lattice also
accounts for reduction in conductivity.
 In nutshell,

 As temperature increases, conductivity

decreases. 28
 MATERIALS FOR ELECTRICAL
APPLICATIONS SUCH AS RESISTANCE, MACHINES,
SOLDERS

MATERIALS USED FOR MACHINES

 Enameled copper wire for generator, motor
windings and field windings.
 Super enameled copper wire for transformer
 Rolled copper bars for bus bars
 Silver for special contacts, high rupturing capacity
fuses.
 The severity of sparking and the rate of
commutator wear in electrical machines is greatly
reduced by using brushes made of carbon.
 Cast iron is used in the manufacture of “resistance
grids “ to be used in the starting of large dc motors. 29
GENERALLY USED CONDUCTOR MATERIALS
ARE

 1. Copper
 Pure copper is the best conductor of electricity.

 Reddish brown in colour

 Highly resistant to corrosion

 Ductile

 Forms many alloys

 Hard drawn copper has increased mechanical strength.

Uses
Wires, cables, windings of generators and transformers, 30
overhead line conductors and bus bars.
2. ALUMINIUM
Properties
 Suitable for operation at very high temperatures.

 Conductivity 75% that of copper but low cost.

 Offers high resistance to corrosion.

 Pure aluminium has silvery colour.

 Ductile

 Cannot be soldered or welded easily

Uses
 ACSR conductors used for overhead transmission lines
and bus bars.
31
 RESISTOR MATERIALS
 Mostly alloys of different metals

 Energy lost will get dissipated as heat energy.

 Mainly divided into 3 groups

1. Materials used in precision electrical measuring
instruments, resistance boxes

2. Materials used for rheostats (constantan)

3. Materials used for high temperature heating

elements, loading rheostat (nichrome) 32
1. TUNGSTEN
Properties
 It is a hard metal and has highest melting point.
 Grayish in colour
 Resistivity is about twice that of aluminium
 It can be drawn into very thin wires
 High tensile strength
 It is an excellent magnetic material

Uses
Filaments in lamps, heater in electron tubes, constituent in
magnets and high speed steels, copper tungsten is suitable
33
for motor starters.
2. CARBON
Properties
 It has very high resistivity
 Negative temperature coefficient of resistance
 Pressure sensitive resistance material
 It has very good abrasive resistance
 It withstands arcing and maintains its properties at high
temperature.

Uses
Brushes in electrical machines, electrodes in arc lamps, in
projectors and microphones, components in electronics
and communication equipments. 34
3. NICHROME
 An alloy of nickel, chromium, manganese and iron

Properties
 High resistivity
 Temperature coefficient of resistance is low
 Withstands high temperature for a long time without melting
and oxidising
 Silvery white in appearnce, ductile, mechanical and thermal
properties.

Uses
Electric iron, tubular heating elements, furnace and heating 35
elements.
4. TIN
Properties
 Bluish white metal with lusture

 Low tensile strength

 Malleable and ductile

 Air has no action on it

 Very soft

Uses
Low current fuses, tubes, cable sheathing, tinning of parts
exposed to corrosion and acids.
36
5. LEAD
Properties
 Soft bluish gray metal

 Malleable and ductile

 Soft and heavy metal

 Corrosion resistant

 Alloys with many other metals

Uses
Electric cables, lead accumulators, lead sheaths to protect
insulation of cable from moisture.
37
6.EUREKA
 This is an alloy of Copper (60%) and nickel(40%)
Properties
 Very suitable alloy with very high working
temperature.
 Heat resisting properties are poor

 It does not rust or corrode due to air, heat and

moisture.
 Melting point 13000 C

Applications
Used for different types of rheostats, resistance
38
wires, resistance boxes, arc lamps, motor starters
7. PLATINUM
Properties
 It is a grayish white metal

 Non corroding

 Resistant to most chemicals

 Drawn into thin wires an strips

 Melting point is 1775 0 C

 Not oxidized, even at high temperature

Applications
 Used as heating element in laboratory ovens and
furnaces
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 It is used as electrical contact material.
8.MANGANIN
It is a copper alloy with copper (80%), manganese
(17 – 18%) and nickel (1.5 to 2%).
Properties
 Specific resistance 44µΩ

 Low temperature coefficient of resistance.

 Melting point is 1020 0 C

 Specific gravity is 8.19

Applications
 Used in standard resistance coils and for
instrument shunts.
40
 SOLDERS
 It is an alloy which is used for making joints
between pieces of metal.
 The melting point of a solder is lower than the
materials to be joined. They are of 2 types
Hard Solders (Melting point higher than 400 0C
It is an alloy of copper and zinc
 Fuse only at red heat
 Can withstand high temperature
 They have high melting point
 It is used for joining brass, copper, iron and steel
 2 types of hard solders namely, brazing solder and silver
solder
 Eg: Aluminum, iron, copper, silver 41
Soft Solders (Melting point lower than 400 0C
It is an alloy of tin and lead.

The most popular composition is 50% tin and 50% lead.

The tin-lead solder serves to join copper, bronze, brass,

lead, tinned iron, zinc etc.

 Poor mechanical strength

 Low melting point

 High tensile strength

 Eg: lead, tin

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 SEMICONDUCTORS
 Conductivity lies between that of conductors
and insulators
 Generally crystalline in structure for IC
devices
 In recent years, however, non-crystalline
semiconductors have become commercially
very important.

polycrystalline amorphous crystalline

43
 Common elements such as silicon, and
germanium are semiconductors.
 Silicon is the best and most widely used
semiconductor

 The main characteristic of

a semiconductor element
is that it has four
electrons in its outer or
valence orbit.

44
 The unique feature of semiconductor atoms is
their ability to link together to form a physical
structure called a crystal lattice.
 The atoms link together with one another sharing
their outer electrons.
 These links are called covalent bonds.

45
 Their resistance decreases with the increase in
temperature. Therefore, they have –ve temp
coefficient of resistance.
Semiconductors are of 2 types
 Intrinsic semiconductor

 Extrinsic semiconductor

46
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
 A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known
as intrinsic semiconductor.
 Consider normally pure semi-conductor at T = 0K ,
there is no electrons in the conduction band.

47
 At T>0K a small fraction of electrons is thermally
excited in to the conduction band, “ leaving” the
same number of holes in the valence band.
 Electrons and holes contribute to the current
when a voltage is applied

48
 The temperature increases up to room temperature
(300K), some covalent bonds break and the electrons
becomes free to move through the crystals. A vacancy
is also produced and called as a “hole”.
 When a free electron is produced , a hole is produced
simultaneously. i.e, electrons and holes are produced
in pairs and is called “electron-hole pair”
 The concentration of free electrons will always equal to
the concentration of holes
 To break a covalent band in the crystal lattice, a
certain amount of energy is required. For eg: Energy
for Ge is 0.72eV and energy for silicon is 1.12 Ev.
 The holes remains in valence band and electron lifts to
conduction band to take part in conduction of current.
49
Intrinsic Conductivity

50
51
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
 Pure semiconductors have small conductivity at
room temperature therefore they are not of much
use.
 By adding some amount of impurity atoms to a
pure semiconductor, we can change its
conductivity or characteristics.
 The process of adding impurity to a pure
semiconductor is called “doping”
 On adding impurities, either the no of electrons or
holes increases.
 A doped semiconductor is called extrinsic
semiconductor.
52
TYPES OF EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
 N type semiconductor
 P type semiconductor

N type semiconductor
 The pentavalent impurity atoms added to a pure
semiconductor, N type semiconductor is obtained.
 The pentavalent impurity atom has five outer
(valence) electrons
Eg: P, Sb, As
 Each impurity atom donates one electron to the
conduction band, therefore pentavalent impurity
is called “ Donor type imputity” 53
P type semiconductor
 The trivalent impurity atoms are added to pure
semiconductor, P-type semiconductors are
formed.
 The trivalent impurity atoms have 3 electrons in
the valence shell.
 It is also called acceptor type impurity

Eg: Indium, Thallium

54
 By substituting a Si atom with a special impurity atom
(Column V or Column III element), a conduction
electron or hole is created.

Donors: P, As, Sb Acceptors: B, Al, Ga, In

55
56
COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTORS
 A compound semiconductor is a semiconductor
composed from two or more different groups of the
periodic table

57
 Advantages of III-V compound semiconductors:
 Can be made P type or N type. Also easy to make.

 Mobility is high.

 Wide band gap energy range : 0.17eV to3.4eV.

 GaAs and InP are used as substrate for epitaxial

growth.
 Tertiary compound semiconductors

 InxGa1-xN: Can tune band gap from 2 to 3.4 eV.

58
APPLICATIONS

59
AMORPHOUS AND CRYSTALLINE
SEMICONDUCTORS

60
 Amorphous semiconductors do not have a long range
order.
 Amorphous Silicon commercially popular .Used in PV
devices, wrist watches and calculators.
 Amorphous Silicon absorbs solar radiation 40 times more
efficiently than single crystal Silicon, so a film of 1
micrometer can absorb 90% of the usable light energy
falling on it.
 Hence reduction in the cost of photovoltaics.
61
 Also, it can be produced at lower temperatures.
62
 ORGANIC SEMICONDUCTORS
 Organic (non-metallic) materials that exhibit
semiconductor properties.
 Semi conductivity in these materials occurs for single
molecules, short chains of molecules and long polymer
chains depending on the material. Small molecule
semiconductors include pentacene, rubrene and
anthracene, as well as larger molecules such as fullerenes
and fullerene derivatives.
63
 Advantages:

Low cost of manufacture.

Lower temperature manufacturing (60-
120° C)
Possible to achieve flexible structures
Low voltages, comparable with the
performance for solution monitoring and
some innovative applications
They are also biodegradable (being made
from carbon).
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Light weight.
APPLICATIONS

65
 Displays:
 (OLED) Organic
Light Emitting
Diodes
 RFID :
 Organic Nano-
Radio Frequency
Identification
Devices
 Solar cells . 66
67
POLARISATION
 A dielectric consists of molecules the atomic nuclei of
which are effectively fixed, relative to each other. In
absence of an external field the electrons are
distributed symmetrically round the nucleus at any
instant.
 When an electric field is applied the electrons of the
atoms are acted upon by this field. This causes a
movement of the electrons which are displaced in a
direction opposite to that of the field.
 The resultant effect is to separate the positive and
negative charges in each molecule so that they behave
like electric dipoles.
 The strength of each dipole is given by the dipole
moment. Unit is debye. 68
 When the dipoles are created the dielectric is said to
be polarized or in state of polarization.
 The polarized dielectric consists of a layer of dipole as
shown in fig below

There is no resultant charge density at any point

within the dielectric because all individual dipole
are aligned parallel to the field.
69
 Consider the dielectric to be composed of a large
number of elementary cylinders each of length l in
the direction of the applied field and of cross
section δA.
 Let a uniform field of strength E be applied normal
to the plates. This polarizes the dielectric inducing
dipoles in each elementary cylinder and charges δq
appear on either end of the cylinder.
 The charge density, σ on the surface δA of the
cylinder given by
σ = δq/δA
=l.δq/l.δA
=m/δV
 Where m is the dipole moment and δV is the
volume of the elementary cylinder.
70
 If the number of dipoles per unit volume be N i.e.,
if N=1/Δv; then σ =Nm.
 The product Nm is called the polarization (P) of
the dielectric and is the total dipole moment
established within unit volume of the insulating
medium.
 Thus a dielectric subjected to a homogenous field
carries a dipole moment P per unit volume which
may be written as P=Nm

71
ELECTRIC POLARISATION
 The electric polarisation of a dielectric maybe
conceived as a forced state of the medium caused
by the action of an electromotive force and which
disappear when that force is removed.
 In other words, it is a displacement of charge
produced by an electromotive intensity.
 When emf acts on a conducting medium it
produces a current through it, but if the medium
is a non-conductor or dielectric, the current
cannot continue to flow through the medium but
electric charge would be displaced within the
medium in the direction of the electromotive
intensity. 72
DERIVATION
•

73
74


75
 Since polarisation P is proportional to the dipole
moment m, the latter must be proportional to the
electric field strength or m=αE.
 α is proportionality constant and is called the
polarisability of the elementary dipole volume.
 In deriving equation (1) the physical state of the
dielectric was not considered.
 Hence this equation is valid for gases, liquids and
solids.

76


77


78


79


80
 The essence of all electrostatic problems in the
presence of dielectric materials is the
determination of polarization P.
 All dielectric application depends upon the ability
to vary P in some manner. P may be varied by
changing the electric field, temperature, or
mechanical strain. In most problems, it is required
to find out the manner in which P varies with the
electric field E.
 In an anisotropic material, the relationship
between P and E may be very complex because the
resultant polarization in a given direction may be
a function of electric fields in all three mutually
perpendicular directions.
81


82
83
 In ferroelectric materials the electric flux lags
behind the electric force producing it such that
under varying electric forces a dissipation of
energy occurs. The energy is dissipated as heat.
The energy loss due to this case is called the
dielectric hysteresis loss.

84
 THE DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OF
MONOATOMIC GASES
 Consider a single atom consisting of a positive
nucleus of charge Ze with Z electrons moving
around the nucleus.
 Let us assume that the total negative charge –Ze
is distributed homogeneously throughout a
sphere of radius “a”.

85
 When this atomic model is placed in a field E as
shown in figure, there is no translational force on
the atoms as a whole, since it is electrically
neutral.
 But the nucleus and the electron cloud will try to
move in opposite direction.
 An equilibrium condition will be obtained in which
the nucleus if displaced relative to the centre of
the electron cloud in the direction of E.
 The displacement of nucleus may be calculated as
follows: assume that the nucleus is shifted by an
amount “d” as shown in the figure. The force on
the nucleus in the direction of the field equals
ZeE.
 From Gauss’ theorem the charge in the latter
region does not exert any force on the nucleus 86


87


88
 IONIC POLARISATION
 Consider a molecule.
 When some of the atoms have an excess charge
(+ve or -ve) as a result of the ionic character of
the bonds, an electric field will tend to shift
positive ions relative to negative ones.
 This will induce a moment of different origin.

 Ionic polarisablity measures the shift of the ions

relative to each other.
 Electronic polarisability measures the shift of the
electrons relative to the nucleus.
89
DIPOLAR POLARISATION


90


91
92


93


Molecule Dipole Moment (debye)

NO 0.1

CO 0.11

CO2 0

NO2 0.4 94
INTERNAL FIELDS IN SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS
 Dipole moment interacts with its neighbour
through its local field.
 In case of solids and liquids, the dipoles are
complicated.
 Main problem is the calculation of the internal
field or the Lorentz field, Ei
 In gases, the density of molecules in low, so it is
assumed that the internal field = applied field.
 In solids and liquids, molecules are so close that
the internal field ≠ applied field.
 The dipole moment induced in each of the atoms 95
is thus given by


96


97


98
SOLID DIELECTRICS
 Electrical conductivity of solid dielectrics may be
ionic, electronic or combined in nature.
 It depends upon the presence of impurities.
 At low temperatures the electrical conductivity
may be wholly due to the impurities.
 At high temperature the magnitude of leakage
current may depend upon the contribution of free
ions of the basic dielectric to electric conduction.
 Breakdown in solid dielectric may be electro
thermal or electrical.
 Electro thermal breakdown is caused by the
destruction of the dielectric due to heating 99
produced by dielectric losses.
 Electric breakdown in solid dielectrics is not yet
understood clearly.
 No universally acceptable theory has been
developed yet.
 The most probable mechanism of electric
breakdown in many solids particularly crystals, is
collision ionization by electrons.
 The applied electric field accelerates the free
electrons in the dielectric.
 The electrons lose part of their kinetic energy
through collision with the particles in the dielectric
which are torn away from the place of their fixing.

100
 BEHAVIOR OF
DIELECTRIC IN STATIC AND ALTERNATING FIELDS

 Let us apply a sinusoidal field

This leads to the development of a charging

current, Ic, due to a change in the charge with
time which is

101
 The term + π/2 implies that the current leads the
voltage by 90° in a perfect dielectric. This current
voltage relationship can also be understood from a
phasor diagram as shown below.

Phasor diagram for a perfect dielectric

102
103