Chapter 14: Solutions

• Many of the forces we’ve talked about occur

between ions/molecules in solutions
• Definition: A homogeneous mixture (only one
phase)
• Examples: saltwater, tap water, gemstones,
brass, air
• Made up of a solvent and a solute:
Solvent: the substance present in the larger amount.
Solute: the other substance
• Dissolving depends on attractive forces and
entropy
 Solutions
• There is a maximum amount of any solute that
will dissolve in a given solvent
• If less than the maximum has been added,
solution is unsaturated
If the max or more than the max has been
added, solution is saturated
• The concentration of a solution is the amount of
solute that has been dissolved in a solvent.
• Many units of concentration:
molarity (mol/L), weight % (g/g), ppm (mg/L)
 Solubility
If a solute will dissolve in a solvent, it is soluble.

Some solutes have limits,

some are infinitely soluble in a solvent.
Sugar: 200 g in 100 mL water at 20 ºC
Ethanol: infinitely soluble in water
Gases are infinitely soluble in one another
Trends and Control of Solubility
General rules:
1. polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents
2. nonpolar solutes dissolve in nonpolar solvents

“Like dissolves Like”

Oil and water don’t mix: is oil polar or nonpolar?

You try: which of these will dissolve in water?

CH3OH CH3CH3 NH3

Trends and Control of Solubility
What controls Solubility:

Enthalpy (enthalpy of solution)

negative if new forces are stronger than original forces

Entropy

more complicated
 “Forcing” Solubility
• How do you make something dissolve if it is
normally insoluble in a solvent?
• Grease and grime are made up of nonpolar
compounds. Will they dissolve in water?
• They will dissolve in nonpolar solvents, like
turpentine, gasoline. Good for cleaning hands?
• Soap: the substance that makes nonpolar
compounds dissolve in water. How would you
design a soap molecule? What chemical
properties should it have?
Soap and Detergent
• Soap is both polar and nonpolar
Attracted to water (polar) and grime
(nonpolar)
Soap is the salt of a fatty acid, it is a
surfactant molecule.

hydrophobic end hydrophilic end

 Soap
• Soap is both polar and nonpolar
Attracted to water (polar) and grime
(nonpolar)
• Made from fats, which contain 3 fatty acids
and glycerol
 Soap
• Nonpolar end is attracted
to grime
Polar end
is attracted
to water
Dirt is picked
up off clothes,
skin, and
rinsed away
See: Soap movie
 Soap
• Hard water and soap
• Hard water contains high concentration of
Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions
• Ion-ion forces between Ca2+, Mg2+ and soap
anion results in soap scum (soap forms a solid
compound on your skin, bathtub, etc.)
• Water softeners replace Ca2+, Mg2+ with Na+
• How does dry-cleaning work? Previously used
CCl4, now less carcinogenic solvents
 Fabric Softener: Cationic
Surfactants

without with

What effect will softener use have on absorptivity?

without with
 Introduction to Polymers
Polymers are long molecules made of repeating units, called monomers.

In general:

Specific example:
 Forces between polymer
chains: Crosslinks

Weak: Intermolecular Strong: Colvalent

force crosslinks bond crosslinks
 Cotton

Cellulose polymer

Absorbs water.
Cellulose chains crosslinked by H-bonding.
Wrinkling
 Permanent Press Cotton
Chemical crosslinking
agent.