Stainless Steel making

AOD : Argon Oxygen Decarburization

Dilution Refining Process
 SS Making
Ferrochrome, which contains about 55 to 70% chromium is the principal
source of Chromium.
This ferroalloy can be classified into various grades, based primarily on their
carbon Content,
 Low carbon ferrochrome (about 0.1 % C).
 Intermediate carbon ferrochrome (about 2% C).
 High carbon ferrochrome (around 7% C).

 Amongst these grades, the high carbon variety has the drawback that
though it is the least expensive, it raises the carbon content of the melt.
This is undesirable, since all SS grades demand carbon contents less than
0.03%.
 Chromium forms stable oxides. Hence, the removal of carbon from the
bath by oxidation to CO is associated with the problem of simultaneous
oxidation of chromium in molten steel.
 The higher the temperature, the greater is the tendency for preferential oxidation

of carbon rather than chromium. From this point of view, higher bath

temperatures are desirable; however, too high a temperature in the bath gives rise

to other process problems.

 The dilution of oxygen with argon lowers the partial pressure of CO, which helps

in preferential removal of CO without oxidising bath chromium. Attempts were

made to use this in the EAF, but the efforts did not succeed. Hence, as is the case

with the production of plain carbon steels, the EAF is now basically a melting unit

for stainless steel production as well. Decarburisation is carried out partially in the

EAF, and the rest of the carbon is removed in a separate refining vessel. In this

context, the development of the AOD process was a major breakthrough in

stainless steelmaking.
• In an AOD converter, argon is used to dilute the other
gaseous species (02, CO, etc.). Hence, in some
literature, it is designated as Dilution Refining
Process.
• Lowering of the partial pressures, such as the partial
pressure of carbon monoxide, is achieved either by
argon or by employing vacuum
The combination of EAF and AOD is sufficient for producing ordinary grades of

stainless steels and this combination is referred to as a Duplex Process.

Subsequent minor refining, temperature and composition adjustments, if

required, can be undertaken in a ladle furnace. Triplex refining, where

1. electric arc furnace melting

2. converter refining

3. followed by refining in a vacuum system, is often desirable when the final

product requires very low carbon and nitrogen levels.

 About 65-70% of the world's total production of stainless steel is in the

austenitic variety, made by the duplex EAF-AOD route. If the use of AOD

converters even in the triplex route is included, the share of AOD in world

production would become as high as 75-80%.

• Over 75% of the world’s stainless steel is made using the Argon Oxygen
Decarburization (AOD) process
• AOD is widely used for the production of stainless steels and specialty
alloys such as silicon steels, tool steels, nickel-base alloys and cobalt-base
alloys.

• Invented by Praxair. It provides an economical way to produce stainless

steels with minimal losses of precious elements.

• After initial melting the metal is then transferred to an AOD vessel where
it will be subjected to three steps of refining
 Decarburization
 Reduction
 Desulphurization
Schematic diagram of AOD
 How It works
• AOD is part of a duplex process in which scrap or virgin
raw materials are first melted in an electric arc furnace
(EAF) or induction furnace.

• Molten steel containing most of the chromium and

nickel needed to meet the final composition of SS is
tapped from electric arc furnace into a transfer ladle

• AOD vessel is rotated into a horizontal position during

charging of liquid steel so that the side mounted
tuyuers are above the bath level.

• The molten metal is then decarburized and refined in a

special AOD vessel to less than 0.05% carbon.
 TRANSFER
ELECTRIC ARC LADLE
FURNACE O2
N2
AOD
ARGON BOTTOM
ARGON OXYGEN
DECARBURIZATION POURING
LADLE

INGOT PROCESS

CUT OFF

PACKAGE CONTINUOUS CASTING MACHINE

AOD PROCESS
 AOD PROCESS
 Conventional AOD, no top blowing is involved. Only a
mixture of argon and oxygen is blown through the
immersed side tuyeres.

 However, the present AOD converters are mostly fitted

with concurrent facilities for top blowing of either only
oxygen, or oxygen plus inert gas mixtures using a
supersonic lance as in BOF steelmaking.
 CONT..

 Initially, when the carbon content of the melt is high, blowing

through the top lance is predominant though the gas mixture
introduced through the side tuyeres also contains a high
percentage of oxygen.

 However, as decarburisation proceeds, oxygen blowing from the

top is reduced in stages and argon blowing increased.

As stated earlier, some stainless steel grades contain nitrogen as a

part of the specifications, in which case, nitrogen is employed in

 place of argon in the final stages.

 Use of a supersonic top lance as in the case of BOFs allows post combustion
of the evolved CO gas with consequent

1. minimisation of toxic carbon monoxide in the exit gas

2. utilisation of the fuel value of CO to raise the bath temperature.

Towards the end of the blow, when the carbon content is very low and is close
to the final specification, only argon is blown

1. to effect mixing and promote slag-metal reaction.

2. minimizes unwanted oxidation of precious elements contained in special

steels, such as chromium.
 At this stage, ferrosilicon and other additions are made. Silicon reduces
chromium oxide from the slag.

 The purpose of the other additions is to perform both alloying as well as

cooling of the bath, since the bath temperature goes beyond 1700°C
following the oxidation reactions.

 If extra-low sulphur is required, the first slag is removed and a fresh

reducing slag is made along with argon stirring.
 Decarburization
• Prior to the decarburization step, one more step should be taken into
consideration: de-siliconization, which is very important factor for
refractory lining and further processing.

• The decarburization step is controlled by ratios of oxygen to argon or

nitrogen to remove the carbon from the metal bath. The ratios can be
done in any number of phases to facilitate the reaction. The gases are
usually blown through a top lance (oxygen only) and tuyeres in the
sides/bottom (oxygen with an inert gas shroud). The stages of blowing
remove carbon by the combination of oxygen and carbon forming CO
gas.

• To drive the reaction to the forming of CO the partial pressure of CO is

lowered using argon or nitrogen. Since the AOD vessel isn't externally
heated, the blowing stages are also used for temperature control. The
burning of oxygen increases the bath temperature.
 Reduction
• After a desired carbon and temp level have been reached the
process moves to reduction

• Reduction recovers the oxidized elements such as Cr from the

slag

• To achieve this, alloy additions are made with elements that

have a higher affinity for oxygen than Cr, using either Si alloy or
Al

• The reduction mix also includes CaO and fluorspar CaF2.

• The addition of lime and fluorspar help with driving the

reduction of Cr2O3 and managing the slag, keeping the slag
fluid and volume small
 Desulphurization
• Desulphurization is achieved by having a high lime
concentration in the slag and a low oxygen activity in the bath
• S(bath) + CaO (slag)→ CaS (slag) +O(bath)
• So, lime are added to dilute sulfur in the metal bath. Also, Al
or Si may be added to remove oxygen.
• Other trimming alloy additions might be added at the end of
the step.
• After sulfur levels have been achieved the slag is removed
from the AOD vessel and the metal bath is ready for tapping.
The tapped bath is then either sent to a stir station for further
chemistry trimming or to a caster for casting.
 THERMODYNAMICS OF REACTIONS IN THE AOD
PROCESS

 Simplified by Hiltey and Kaveney

INFLUENCE OF PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE ON THE RETENTION OF CR BY
OXYGEN SATURATED STEEL MELTS AT 0.05%C