Body Temperature Regulation (cont)

B. The greater the temperature difference between

body and environment, the greater the rate of heat
exchange.

C. Regulated by a “set point” in hypothalamus

1. Negative feedback mechanism.
2. Set point can change (fever).

1
 Temperature Regulation
3 4
Actions
Receptors in the skin and
hypothalamus detect increase
in body temperature.
Hypothalamus activates
heat-loss mechanisms.
2 5
Body temperature increases:
Homeostasis Disturbed
1 6
Body temperature
(normal range)
Start here
Body temperature decreases:
Homeostasis Disturbed
Actions
Receptors in the skin and
hypothalamus detect decrease
in body temperature. The
control center in the
hypothalamus activates
heat-conserving and
heat-generating mechanisms.
Reactions
The effectors are activated.
Increased sweating increases evaporative
heat loss.
Dilation of skin blood vessels increases
heat loss from the skin.
Behavioral modifications, such as taking
off a jacket or seeking a cooler
environment, increase heat loss.
Body temperature decreases;
Homeostasis Restored
Body temperature
(normal range)
Body temperature increases;
Homeostasis Restored
Reactions
The effectors are activated.
Constriction of skin blood vessels
decreases heat loss from the skin.
Shivering increases heat production.
Behavioral modifications, such as
putting on a jacket or seeking a
warmer environment, decrease
heat loss.
25-2
 Fever

• Higher than normal body temperature.

• Pyrogens  raise the temperature set point

of hypothalamus.

• Some is believed beneficial.

3
 Catabolism to make ATP

Energy in carbohydrates, lipids,

(& proteins) is used to produce ATP.
- When H+ and e- are lost from the nutrient molecule,
energy is given up to ADP to make ATP.

Electron
NADH
FADH2 Transport chain
in mitochondria
ATP
4
5-5
 Chapter 26 Urinary System

• Why should you care?

5-6
Learning Outcomes

You will be able to:

26.1B Describe the main functions of the kidney

7
 Urinary System Functions
A. Excretion - filtration, reabsorption, secretion.

B. Regulation of:
1. Blood volume and BP
2. Solute concentration: Na+, K+, Cl-, Ca2+,HPO4-2
3. pH of extracellular fluid: secretes H+

C. Production of:
4. RBC synthesis.
5. Vitamin D (blood Ca2+ levels).
8
 Another way to remember renal functions:

 Excretion – Eliminates wastes - urea, toxic

molecules.

 Balance – Regulates blood volume (H2O;

also related to BP), ions (i.e. Na/K, H+
which is pH, etc.)

 Production – Erythropoiten (RBCs) and

Vitamin D (Ca++ absorption).
Learning Outcomes

You will be able to:

26.1A List the organs of the urinary system.

10
Urinary System Anatomy

Adrenal glands Renal artery

Tenth rib
Left kidney

Inferior vena cava

Abdominal aorta
Ureters
Urinary
System
Urinary bladder

Urethra

Anterior view

Anterior

Peritoneal cavity

Inferior vena cava

Renal fascia
Abdominal aorta
Adipose tissue

Vertebra Renal capsule

Kidney
Posterior

Inferior view
5-12
 Next . . .

 Anatomy and Histology

 Urine production – 3 parts:

 Filtration
 Tubular Reabsorption
 Tubular Secretion

13
Learning Outcomes

You will be able to:

26.2A Describe the location and external anatomy

of the kidneys.

26.2B Describe the inner regions of the kidney.

14
Location and External Anatomy - Kidneys
A. Location
1. Behind peritoneum (retroperitoneal) - posterior abdominal wall on
either side of vertebra.

2. Lumbar vertebrae & rib cage help protect via 11 and 12th ribs.
3. Right kidney slightly lower than left.

Anterior view

Body wall
Parietal peritoneum
Peritoneal cavity

Abdominal aorta

Inferior view
Location and External Anatomy
B. External Anatomy
1. Renal fascia: thin layer tissue - anchors kidneys
and surrounding adipose to abdominal wall.
2. Perirenal fat (Adipose): Engulfs renal capsule –
cushioning
3. Renal capsule: fibrous connective tissue
surrounds kidney.
4. Hilum: Renal artery & veins along with nerves &
ureter.

Renal fascia

Adipose tissue

Renal capsule
Kidney
Posterior

Inferior view
16
Internal Anatomy of Kidneys
A. Cortex: outer
 Renal columns: cortical tissue
extends into medulla.

B. Medulla: inner
 Renal pyramids: cone
shaped. Base at cortex and
medulla boundary. Apex is
renal papilla.

C. Calyces
 Minor: papillae extend into
funnel of minor calyx (8-20).
 Major: converge (2-3).

D. Pelvis: chamber formed by

major calyces.
E. Ureter: exits at hilum 
bladder. 17
Cast of Major
Calyces (3 in
this picture)

18
Learning Outcomes

You will be able to:

26.2C Give details of nephron’s structure and

histology.

26.2D Explain blood supply of kidney.

19
 The “Nephron”
A. Functional unit of kidney (1.3
million/kidney)

B. *Nephron = Renal corpuscle,

proximal tubule, loop of Henle,
distal tubule.

C. Urine from nephron  collecting

ducts papillary ducts  minor
calyces  major calyces 
renal pelvis.

D. Collecting ducts, parts of loops of

Henle, and papillary ducts are in
the renal medulla.

20
 Glomerulus Renal
Bowman corpuscle
capsule (cut)
Proximal convoluted
tubule
Loop of Nephron
Henle
Distal
convoluted
tubule
Proximal
convoluted tubule
Distal Renal
convoluted corpuscle
tubule Cortical nephrons
Blood have loops of
Juxtamedullary supply Henle that do
nephrons have
not extend
loops of Henle that Cortex
deep into the
extend deep into the
medulla.
medulla.

Thick segment
ascending limb

Loop of Thin segment

Henle ascending limb
Renal
Thin segment
pyramid of
descending limb
the medulla

Collecting ducts

Papillary
duct
Renal To a minor calyx
papilla
 Nephrons (Two Types)

A. Juxtamedullary nephrons.
Renal corpuscle near cortical
medullary border. Loops of
Henle extend deep into
medulla (15%)

B. Cortical nephrons. Renal

corpuscle near periphery of
cortex. Loops of Henle do not
extend deep into medulla.

Renal corpuscle = Bowman’s

capsule + capillary bed that is
called a glomerulus.

22
23
24
 _________________________
___________________________ capsule
__________________________
_________________________________

Proximal tubule
___________________________________________
Distal tubule Renal
corpuscle

Blood
__________________ supply ________________________
________________________
________________________ have loops of _________________________
have loops of Henle that Henle that do
extend deep into the not extend
medulla deep into the
Thin medulla
segment
descending
limb ___________________
Thick
segment ___ ______________
ascending
limb
Thin
segment
ascending
limb

____________
Ducts ________________________

________________________

of the medulla

Papillary
duct

To a calyx
__________________________ ____________________________ Fig. 26.4
 Renal Corpuscle = Bowman’s capsule + Glomerulus

A. Bowman’s capsule:
parietal and visceral layer
(cells of visceral layer = podocytes).

B. Glomerulus: network of
capillaries.

Blood enters  afferent arteriole.

Exits  efferent arteriole.

26
Bowman’s Capsule
A. Parietal layer (outer).
Simple squamous epith.
becomes cube-shaped
where proximal tubule
begins.

B. Visceral layer (inner).

Specialized podocytes -
wrap around glomerular
capillaries.

27
 Parietal layer
Bowman capsule Proximal
Visceral layer
Renal (podocyte) convoluted
corpuscle Glomerular capillary tubule
(covered by visceral layer)
Afferent
Capillary
arteriole
(enclosed by
podocytes)

Juxtaglomerular
Juxtaglomerular cells
apparatus
Macula densa

Distal
convoluted
tubule

Efferent
arteriole
 Activity 1

 % person - Draw the 4 parts of the

functional unit of kidney.

 # person - Label parts of the functional

unit of kidney.

29
Filtration Membrane (3)

Podocyte A. Fenestrae: window-like

openings - endothelial
cells of glomerular
capillaries.

B. Filtrations slits: gaps

between cell processes of
podocytes.

- Basement membrane
sandwiched between
endothelial cells of
capillaries and podocytes.

30
Filtration Membrane (cont)

C. Filtration membrane (3):

capillary endothelium +
basement membrane +
podocytes.

1. Filters blood.

2. Fluid from blood in

capillaries moves across
filtration membrane into
space (lumen) inside
Bowman’s capsule.

31
 Activity 2
# person - Draw a cartoon picture of the
filtration membrane (3).

Include two types of openings

- in endothelial cells.
- between podocytes.

% person - Label the picture (3 parts and 2

openings). 32
Circulation in the Glomerulus

A. Afferent arteriole: blood 

glomerulus.
B. Efferent arteriole: drains
glomerulus.
C. Both vessels - layer of smooth
muscle.

D. Juxtaglomerular apparatus:
 renin production.
1. Juxtaglomerular cells - ring
of smooth muscle in afferent
arteriole.

2. Macula densa - Specialized

tubule cells of distal tubule.
(Distal tubule lies between
afferent/efferent arteriole).
33
Histology of the Nephron and
Collecting Duct

1. Proximal Tubule

2. Loop of Henle

3. Distal Tubule

4. Collecting Duct
34
Histology of the Nephron

A. Proximal tubule: simple

cuboidal epithelium - many
microvilli (reabsorb/secrete).
B. Loops of Henle
1. Descending limb:
simple squamous epith.
(H2O diffuses out)

2. Ascending limb:
Thin – (simple squamous
epith.)
Thick – distal (simple cuboidal
epith.)

35
Histology Nephron (cont)

C. Distal tubule: shorter

than proximal. Simple
cuboidal, very few microvilli.

D. Collecting ducts: many

distal tubules come together.
Larger in diameter, simple
cuboidal. Form medullary rays and lead to
papillary ducts.

36
 Bowman Proximal
Renal capsule convoluted
corpuscle tubule Distal
Glomerulus convoluted
tubule
Juxtamedullary nephron

Ascending limb,
loop of Henle

Collecting duct

Descending limb,
loop of Henle

Papillary duct
 Circulation Through the Kidney

Arterial supply:
- Renal arteries from
abdominal aorta.

A. Arteries divide and

eventually blood flow into
afferent arterioles.

38
 Proximal
Distal
8. Efferent convoluted
convoluted
arteriole tubule
tubule
7. Glomerulus
Bowman 9. Peritubular
capsule capillaries (blood
6. Afferent
arteriole flows to the vasa
recta or directly to
the interlobular
veins)
5. Interlobular
11. Interlobular artery
5. Interlobular vein
artery Arcuate
artery
4. Arcuate
artery 11. Interlobular
12. Arcuate vein
3. Interlobar vein
artery Arcuate
2. Segmental 13. Interlobar vein
artery vein
Ascending limb,
1. Renal loop of Henle
artery
Descending limb,
14. Renal loop of Henle
vein
Medulla 10. Vasa recta Collecting
Cortex duct
Renal
pyramid
Ureter Renal
column
 Circulation Through Kidney (continue)

The part of circulation involved

with urine formation (write in)
B. Afferent arterioles supply
blood to glomerulus

C. Efferent arterioles to
Peritubular capillaries - form a
plexus around proximal and distal
tubules.

D. Vasa recta: special peritubular

capillaries.

40
 Circulation Through Kidney (continue)

Venous blood vessels

- Peritubular capillaries
drain eventually into the
Renal veins.

41
 Proximal
Distal
8. Efferent convoluted
convoluted
arteriole tubule
tubule
7. Glomerulus
Bowman 9. Peritubular
capsule capillaries (blood
6. Afferent
arteriole flows to the vasa
recta or directly to
the interlobular
veins)
5. Interlobular
11. Interlobular artery
5. Interlobular vein
artery Arcuate
artery
4. Arcuate
artery 11. Interlobular
12. Arcuate vein
3. Interlobar vein
artery Arcuate
2. Segmental 13. Interlobar vein
artery vein
Ascending limb,
1. Renal loop of Henle
artery
Descending limb,
14. Renal loop of Henle
vein
Medulla 10. Vasa recta Collecting
Cortex duct
Renal
pyramid
Ureter Renal
column
 Anatomy

 Histology of Ureters, Bladder, Urethra

43
 Anatomy - Histology of Ureters and Bladder
A. Ureters: urine from renal pelvis  urinary bladder.

B. Urinary bladder: hollow, muscular. Called detrusor muscle.

Posterior to symphysis pubis

- Both Ureters and

Kidney
bladder lined with transitional
Transitional
epithelium
epithelium.

Ureter

Connective tissue
(lamina propria)
Smooth muscle layer
Connective tissue Parietal peritoneum
(adventitia)
Urinary bladder
Opening of ureter
Trigone
Opening of urethra
Transitional epithelium
Location of the
external urethral Connective tissue
sphincter (lamina propria)

Smooth muscle layer

(detrusor muscle)

Connective tissue
(adventitia)
 Anatomy and Histology - Urethra

A. Male: from inferior

urinary bladder
through penis.

B. Female: shorter;
opens into vestibule
anterior to vaginal
opening.

45
 Anatomy Histology Urethra

C. Internal urinary
sphincter: (males) elastic
connective tissue and
smooth muscle (not shown)
keeps semen from entering
bladder during ejaculation.

D. External urinary
sphincter: skeletal muscle
surrounds urethra as it
extends through pelvic
floor.
Acts as valve.
46
 Review - renal functions:

 Excretion – Eliminates wastes - urea, toxic

molecules.

 Balance – Regulates blood volume (H2O;

also related to BP), ions (i.e. Na/K, H+
which is pH, etc.)

 Production – Erythropoiten (RBCs) and

Vitamin D (Ca++ absorption).
 Learning Outcomes

You will be able to:

26.3A Briefly describe three processes necessary for

urine production.

26.3B Identify principal factors that influence

filtration, and explain how they affect the rate of
filtrate formation.

26.3C Explain how filtration is regulated.

48
 Urine Formation
Nephrons: functional unit of
kidney.

- It produces urine.

49
 Urine Production

 Filtration

 Tubular Reabsorption

 Tubular Secretion

50
 Urine Production
Filtration (H2O, small solutes - (glucose, Na+, many others)
Tubular Reabsorption (solutes, H2O)
Tubular Secretion (solutes)

51
 Filtration
A. Movement of fluid, from blood flowing through
glomerulus across the filtration membrane.

B. Filtrate: water, small molecules, ions that can

pass through membrane.
Filtrate = plasma – blood cells and blood proteins

C. Pressure forces filtrate across the filtration

membrane.

52
 Filtration (cont)

D. Renal blood flow rate: 1176 mL/min. (21% of

Cardiac Output)

E. Glomerular filtration rate (GFR): amount of

filtrate produced each minute; 125mL/min (or 180
liters/day.
47 of these

F. Average urine production/day: (1-2 L.) So most of

the 180L/day of filtrate is reabsorbed (99%).
53
 Filtration (cont)
A. Filtration membrane: many times more permeable than typical
capillary. Prevents blood cells/proteins from entering lumen of
Bowman’s capsule.
1. Fenestrated endothelium + basement membrane +
podocytes slits.
2. Some albumin and small hormone proteins enter
filtrate, then reabsorbed by proximal tubule. (Very little if
any protein in urine).

B. Filtration pressure - forces fluid from glomerular

capillary across membrane into lumen of Bowman’s
capsules.

54
 Filtration

C. Changes in afferent and efferent arteriole

diameter alter Filtration pressure. (see Sympathetic
Stimulation later in Powerpoint)

1. Dilation of afferent arterioles and constriction of

efferent arterioles increases filtration pressure and thus
glomerular filtration rate (GFR).

55
 Question . . .

What is Filtration pressure?

- Pressure that forces fluid across the
filtration membrane into the lumen.

How does afferent arteriole diameter affect

GFR?
- Dilation of the afferent arteriole increases GFR
(and vice versa).

56
 Learning Outcomes

You will be able to:

26.3DDescribe the role of the various regions of the

kidney tubule in the process of reabsorption.

26.3EExplain how substances are able to move

across the wall of the tubule.

57
 Essential Questions

 “How does 179 liters of filtrate become

Reabsorbed in the nephron every 24
hours?”

 “How does the nephron Secrete solutes”

58
 Tubular Reabsorption: Overview
A. Tubular reabsorption: from the lumen of
proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule, and
collecting ducts. (what’s a lumen?)

B. Mechanism:
1. Diffusion
2. Facilitated diffusion
*3. Active transport
4. Symport
5. Osmosis

* = drives the whole process.

59
 Peritubular
Blood Solutes H2O capillary
flow
Interstitial fluid

Filtrate
flow Proximal convoluted tubule

Facilitated diffusion
Active transport
Symport
Solutes and water Interstitial

Glucose
move into the interstitial fluid

Amino
acids
fluid and then into

H2O
Na+

Cl–
K+

K+
the peritubular capillaries.
Basal
membrane
ATP
K+ ADP

Active Symport Facilitated Osmosis

transport diffusion
Tubule cell
Glucose

Amino
acids

H2O
Na+
Na+
Cl–
Na+

Apical
membrane

Solutes move from the Lumen of tubule

Filtrate flow containing filtrate
filtrate into the tubule
Symport Osmosis
cell, and water follows
by osmosis.
Tubular Reabsorption: Overview

 C. Substances transported to interstitial

fluid:
- amino acids, glucose, fructose.
- Na+, K+, Ca2+,HCO3-, Cl-.
- 99% of filtrate volume returns to circulation
via veins.

61
 Reabsorption where?

1. Proximal tubule
2. Loop of Henle
3. Distal tubule
4. Collecting ducts

62
A. Through cells of tubule wall.
Each cell has: Reabsorption
1. Apical surface: faces filtrate in Proximal
(Apical membrane)
2. Basal surface: faces Tubule
interstitial fluid (Basal
membrane).

3. Lateral surfaces: surfaces

between cells.

B FIRST. Active transport of Na+

across the basal membrane
from cytoplasm to interstitial
fluid.
Linked to reabsorption of most
solutes.

63
C. Na+ is low inside cell (via active
Reabsorption in
transport). So Na+ moves into Proximal Tubule
nephron cell from filtrate
through apical membrane.
Other substances - symport from
filtrate into the nephron cell.

D. Once substances transported

through apical membrane,
then they cross basal
membrane by facilitated
diffusion (& water goes by
osmosis).

64
 Reabsorption in Proximal Tubule (cont)

E. Carrier molecule number limits

rate of transport.

- Example: in diabetes mellitus

1. Concentration of glucose in filtrate
exceeds rate of transport.
2. High concentration of glucose in
plasma (and thus in the filtrate)
glucose in urine.

F. Filtrate volume reduced by

65% due to osmosis of water.

65
 3 Interstitial
1 Fluid

Lumen of
2 Tubule

66
 Reabsorption where?

1. Proximal tubule
2. Loop of Henle
3. Distal tubule
4. Collecting ducts

67
Reabsorption - Loop of Henle

A. Loop of Henle descends

into medulla (interstitial
fluid is high in solutes).

B. Descending thin segment

- permeable to water
and moderately
permeable to urea,
sodium, other ions.

68
Reabsorption - Loop of Henle

C. Water moves out of

nephron, solutes move
into nephron. Filtrate
volume reduced another
15%.

D. Ascending thin segment -

not permeable to water,
but permeable to solutes.

Solutes diffuse out of

tubule  interstitial fluid
 vasa recta vessels69
.
 Reabsorption – Ascending thick Loop of Henle

E. Wall of ascending thick limb

(loop of Henle) is not
permeable to water. On
basal membrane, Na+(active
transport), K+& Cl- symport
with Na+.

F. By end of the loop of Henle,

inside of nephron is 100
mOsm/kg. Interstitial fluid in
the cortex is 300 mOsm/kg.

70
 Facilitated diffusion
Active transport
Blood flow Symport

Filtrate flow Filtrate Solutes are

flow
Solutes are transported
into the tubule cells,
but water remains in the
H2O ascending limb of the
loop of Henle.
transported out of the
cells of the ascending
limb of the loop of
Henle and enter the
vasa recta.

H2O
K+
K+ ATP Na+
Na+ ADP
H2O 2 Cl– Cl–

K+ K+
Na+
Ascending 2 Cl–
limb of the
loop of Transport
Henle is not of solutes
permeable
to water.

Ascending Interstitial Descending

limb, loop fluid vasa recta
Basal membrane Descending vasa recta
of Henle Apical membrane
Tubule cell
The wall of the ascending limb of the loop of Henle is not permeable to water. Sodium ions move across the wall of the basal
membrane by active transport, establishing a concentration gradient for Na +. Potassium ions and Cl– are symported with Na+ across
the apical membrane, and ions pass by facilitated diffusion across the basal membrane of the tubule cells.
Reabsorption - Distal Tubule & Collecting Duct
A. Active transport of Na+ out of tubule cells into interstitial
fluid.
B. Collecting ducts extend from cortex (interstitial fluid 300
mOsm/kg) through medulla (interstitial fluid 1200
mOsm).

C. Water moves by Osmosis into more concentrated

interstitial fluid. But permeability of wall is variable*.

*D. Urine can vary in concentration:

- low volume with high concentration
to
- high volume with low concentration.
72
 What’s an Osmole?

 A measure of the number of particles in

a solution.

 A milliosmole (mOsm) is 1/1000 of a

osmole.

73
Changes in Concentration of Solutes in
Nephron from Reabsorption

A. Urea: enters glomerular filtrate.

1. Walls of nephron not very permeable to urea:

B. Urate ions, creatinine, sulfates, phosphates,

nitrates only partially reabsorbed.

1. So concentration is high in urine and these toxic

substances are eliminated (a good thing!)

74
 Another review question . . .

Describe how symport works in the

nephron.

 Na takes his/her “friends” along for the

ride - from high Na+ in the filtrate (that is
in the lumen) to low Na+ concentration
inside the tubule cell.

75
Learning Outcomes

You will be able to:

26.3FRelate the types of substances that are

moved during tubular secretion, and explain how
those substances are moved.

76
If you eat too much potassium (K+) how
do you get rid of it?

Fruits

Vegetables
77
 Tubular Secretion
A. Moves metabolic by-products, drugs, and
molecules not normally produced by the body
into tubule lumen of the nephron.

B. Active or Passive secretion.

C. Ammonia: produced by tubule cells of nephron

from protein metabolism. Passive Diffusion into
lumen.

D. H+, K+, penicillin, and other substances

actively secreted into nephron. (active transport)
78
Secretion of Hydrogen and Potassium
(antiport)

A. H+ ions (think pH balanced)

secreted into filtrate by
antiport in proximal
tubule.

79
Secretion of Hydrogen and Potassium (cont)

B. H+ and K+ secreted
into filtrate by
antiport in distal
tubule.

80
 Urine Production (summary)

A. In Proximal tubules:
1. Na+ and other substances removed.
2. Water follows passively.
3. Filtrate volume reduced 65%.
4. Filtrate 300 mOsm.

B. In descending limb - Loop of Henle:

1. Water exits passively, solute enters tubule.
2. Filtrate volume reduced 15% more.
3. Filtrate 1200 mOsm at the bottom of loop
(or tip).
81
 Urine Production (summary continued)

C. In ascending limb - loop of Henle:

1. Na+ Cl- & K+ transported out of filtrate.
2. Impermeable to H2O.

D. In distal tubules and collecting ducts:

1. Water movement out of filtrate regulated via
ADH.
 If ADH absent, water not reabsorbed and lots of
dilute urine produced.

 If ADH present, water moves out of filtrate and a

little concentrated urine produced.
 How does the kidney balance
the volume
(“water level”) in your plasma?

83
 Learning Outcomes

You will be able to:

26.3G Describe the three mechanisms that explain

the kidney’s ability to concentrate urine.

84
 Urine Concentration Mechanism
A. When drink lots of water:
1. Eliminate excess without losing large amounts of
electrolytes.
2. Kidneys produce large volume of dilute urine.

B. When drinking water not available:

1. Kidneys produce small volume of concentrated urine.
2. Removes waste, prevents dehydration.

C. The mechanisms that create urine of different

concentrations:
1. High concentration of solutes in medulla.
2 . Distal nephron “sometimes” permeable to water.

85
 Medullary Concentration Gradient

A. To concentrate urine, the kidney must

maintain high concentration of solutes in
medulla.

B. Interstitial fluid concentration = 300 mOsm

(cortical region) - gradually increases to 1200
mOsm in medulla.

86
Maintenance of Concentration gradient
(review)

1. Function of loops of Henle.

2. Vasa recta flowing countercurrent to

filtrate in loops of Henle.

3. Distribution and recycling of urea.

87
 Loops of Henle
A. Juxtamedullary nephrons:
long loops.
1. Walls - descending limbs
permeable to water that
moves out into interstitial
fluid.

2. Walls of ascending limb

impermeable to water.

3. Solute diffuses out of thin

segment of ascending limb.

Fig **Fig
26.14 a 26.14 a**
88
 Loops of Henle (cont)

4. Na+, K+ and Cl- transported

out of ascending limb into
interstitial fluid. Solutes

5. Water enters interstitial

fluid from descending limbs.
Solutes enter interstitial
fluid from ascending limbs.

Fig 26.14 b
89
 “Kidney Makes Urine”

 Filtration

 Tubular Reabsorption

 Tubular Secretion

90
How does the interstitial part of the

kidney get rid of all the water and

solutes it reabsorbs from the tubules?

91
A. Loops of Henle and vasa recta function together -
maintain high concentration of solutes in interstitial
fluids of medulla and carry away excess water &
solutes that enter medulla.

Fig 26.14 c 92
 Urea

A. Responsible for large part

of high milliosmoles in the
medulla.

B. Urea flows in a cycle -

maintains high urea
concentration in medulla.

93
Water diffuses out of the Loop of Henle
thin segment of the loop of
Henle.
Filtrate 300 300
The filtrate concentration is 100
1200 mOsm. Collecting
Descending
duct
Sodium and other solutes limb Na+
are actively transported Ascending K+
out of the loop of Henle limb 2Cl–
into the medulla.
600 600 600 600
H2O
Solutes
H2O 900 900
900 900
H2O
Solutes Solutes
1200 1200 1200
H2O
1200

Diffusion
of solutes
Osmosis of
water
Symport of
Na+, K+,
and Cl–
“Summary of Changes in Filtrate Volume
and Concentration”

 Read and understand this section!

 These steps are obligatory – they occur

regardless of the final concentration
and volume of urine.

95
 Proximal tubule Distal tubule
2
Bowman
capsule
1
300
65% H2O
300 65% NaCl

Fig. 26.16 8 19% H2O

9–10% NaCl
Cortex

NaCl
H2O
300
6 300
300 100 25% NaCl

400
400 200 NaCl
NaCl

600 400 400

5
H2O NaCl H2O

NaCl
Medulla 800
800
2 H2O

NaCl 800

1000
H2O NaCl

4 H2O
1200 NaCl
1200
1200
3
Concentration of
15% H2O Loop of Henle Collecting duct
interstitial fluid
(mOsm/kg)

1% remains
as urine
5

Urine Concentrating Mechanisms 6

Fig 26.16
Kangaroo Rat
97
 Formation of Concentrated Urine

A. Distal tubule and Collecting duct are very

permeable to H2O if ADH is present.
1. This takes out 19 of the remaining 20 %
of filtrate that is left in the tubule.
2. 1 % of filtrate remains as urine.

B. Beneficial substances are reabsorbed and

toxic substances are secreted.

98
 Formation of Dilute Urine

A. Distal tubule and Collecting duct are not very

permeable to H2O if ADH is absent.
1. A lot of the 19% of the remaining 20 % of
the filtrate that is left in the tubule is Not
reabsorbed.

2. Urine has more water in it so is more

dilute.

99
 ADH and the Nephron

Interstitial Fluid

Distal Tubule
and Collecting
duct cells.

Filtrate in the Lumen 100

 Q: Why would you want the kidneys to
make low volume of concentrated
urine?

 A: When the body needs to conserve

water and yet still eliminate the same
number of waste molecules (Urea, Uric
acid, etc) every 24 hours.

101
 Q: Why would you want the kidneys to
make a high volume of dilute urine?

 A: When excess water needs to be

eliminated but the number of ions
(Na+, Cl-, etc) needs to be conserved

102
 Regulation - Urine
Concentration and Volume
1. Hormonal Mechanisms

2. Autoregulation
3. Sympathetic System

103
 Learning Outcomes

You will be able to:

26.4A Explain how antidiuretic hormone, renin-

angiotensin-aldosterone, and atrial natriuretic
hormone influence volume and concentration
of urine.

104
 Hormonal Regulation

A. ADH

B. Renin/Angiotensin/Aldosterone

C. Atrial natriuretic hormone

D. Prostaglandins
105
 A. Antidiuretic Hormone

1. If no ADH – produce 10 to 20 liters/day

of urine (Diabetes Insipidus).

2. Posterior pituitary stores and releases

ADH when:
a. Blood osmolality increases (when blood is
more concentrated).
b. BP declines (but > 5-10 %).
106
 Question . . .

Alcohol inhibits ADH secretion. How is the

volume of urine production influenced?

 More urine is produced as less ADH is

available to act on the D.T. and C.D.

107
Effect of ADH on Urine Concentration and Volume p. 974

Collecting Duct Collecting Duct

with ADH. without ADH.
 Hormonal Regulation

A. ADH

B. Renin/Angiotensin/Aldosterone
C. Atrial natriuretic hormone
D. Prostaglandins

110
B. Renin/Angiotensin/Aldosterone
Renin
(from kidneys)

Angiotensinogen Angiotensin I
(from liver)
Angiotensin-
converting enzyme
Angiotensin II

Adrenal
cortex
Increased K+ Active transport
Increased aldosterone Antiport
Increased Aldosterone
Active transport Interstitial
Aldosterone fluid
Cl–
Na+

Basal
membrane
Increased synthesis of ADP
transport proteins K+ ATP Tubule cell
Aldosterone
Na+ Na+ Cl–
receptor
Apical
membrane

H+ K+
Filtrate

Antiport
Filtrate in Lumen of distal convoluted tubule
Aldosterone secreted from the adrenal cortex enters cells of the distal convoluted tubule.
Aldosterone binds to nuclear receptors and increases the synthesis of transport proteins of the apical
and basal membranes.
Newly synthesized transport proteins increase the rate at which Na+ is absorbed and K+ and H+
are secreted. Chloride ions move with the Na+ because they are attracted to the positive charge of Na+.
 Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone

1. Renin secreted from juxtglomerular

apparatus. Rate of release increases if:
a. BP in afferent arteriole decreases.
b. Na+ concentration of filtrate decreases.

2. Angiotensinogen (liver) Angiotensin I

(ACE) Angiotensin II (lung) Aldosterone
secretion.

112
 Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone

3. Aldosterone binds to D.T.s and C.D.s 

increases rate of Na+ taken out of the filtrate
(increases Na+ transport).

4. If low Aldosterone, Na+ stays in the filtrate

and H2O follows (stays there)  larger amount
of urine.

5. Also, high blood K+ directly stimulates

Aldosterone secretions from adrenal (Chap. 27).
113
 Hormonal Regulation

A. ADH
B. Renin/Angiotensin/Aldosterone

C. Atrial natriuretic hormone

D. Prostaglandins

114
 Hormones (cont)
C. Atrial natriuretic hormone
1. Produced by right atrium (heart) when blood
volume increases  stretches cells.
2. Inhibits Na+ reabsorption.
3. Inhibits ADH production.
4. Increases volume of urine produced.
5. Venous return is lowered  volume in right
atrium decreases.

D. Prostaglandins: produced in kidney.

Role unclear.

115
 Diuretics Medications (p. 973)

Sodium ion reabsorption inhibitors –

- Thiazides – block apical Na/Cl Symport in D.T.
(Hydrochrolothiazide)

-“Loop diuretics”- block Na/K/Cl Symport ascend Loop of

Henle (Lasix)
Potassium-sparing diuretics – in D.T. & C.D –
reduces the exchange Na+/K+ inhibits aldosterone; or one
other mechanism (Aldactone)
Osmotic diuretics – high osmotic concentration in
filtrate (mannitol)
Xanthines – increase renal blood flow, decrease Na+
reabsorption (caffeine)
116
Regulation - Urine Concentration and
Volume

1. Hormonal Mechanisms (4)

2. Autoregulation
3. Sympathetic System

117
 Autoregulation and
Sympathetic Stimulation

A. Autoregulation – “maintenance”
1. Constriction in afferent arterioles.

2. As BP increases, afferent arterioles

constrict - prevent increase in renal blood
flow.

3. Increased flow of filtrate past cells of

macula densa (D.T.) sends signal to
juxtaglomerular apparatus  afferent
arteriole constricts.
118
 Autoregulation and
Sympathetic Stimulation
B. Sympathetic stimulation: Norepinephrine
1. Constricts small arteries and afferent
arterioles.

2. Decreases renal blood flow  decreases

filtrate formation (and thus GFR) .

3. During “shock or intense exercise”: intense

sympathetic stimulation  the rate of filtrate
formation drops to a few ml/minute.
119
 Learning Outcomes

You will be able to:

26.5CExplain how plasma clearance is used to

calculate renal plasma flow.

26.5D Define tubular load and tubular maximum.

120
 Clearance and Tubular Load
A. The Tubular load
1. Amount of substance that passes through
filtration membrane into nephrons each
minute (i.e. glucose).

121
 A. Maximum rate at which
Tubular substance can be reabsorbed
1. Each substance has its own
Maximum tubular maximum.

2. Normally, glucose
concentration in plasma (and
thus filtrate) is lower than
No Small amount
All glucose the tubular maximum & all is
in excess of
glucose of glucose 320 mg/min reabsorbed (no glucose in
enters passes into passes into urine).
urine. urine.
Concentration of glucose in urine

urine.

3. In diabetes mellitus tubular

load exceeds tubular
maximum  glucose in
urine.
Tubular
maximum
Urine volume increases as
filtrate osmolality increases –
water wants to stay “to
make a difference”.
320 mg/min
Less than 320 Greater than
mg/min 320 mg/min

Amount of glucose
entering filtrate each minute
 Learning Outcomes

You will be able to:

26.6A Describe the anatomy and histology of the

ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.
26.6B Explain the flow of urine from the nephron to
the urinary bladder.
26.6C Discuss the micturition reflex.

123
 Urine Movement
A. Hydrostatic pressure forces urine through
nephron.

B. Peristalsis moves urine through ureters.

- once every few seconds to once every
2-3 minutes
1. Parasympathetic stimulation: increases frequency
2. Sympathetic stimulation: decreases frequency.

C. Ureters enter bladder obliquely through trigone.

Pressure in bladder compresses ureter and
prevents backflow.
124
 Micturition Reflex
1.Urinary bladder becomes
stretched (~ 300ml or more).
2. Signal to pons/cerebrum.
3. Efferent nerves from brain
can cause (voluntary)
a. tonic inhibition reflex
b. stimulate reflex
Pelvic N.
4. Micturition reflex – pelvic N. to Parasympathetic n..
sacral spinal cord.
a. Parasympathetic contract
smooth muscle.
Somatic Motor N.

b. Somatic motor relax

external urinary sphincter.
125
 Cerebrum

Micturition Reflex

Pons

Ascending Descending
pathways pathways

Sacral region
of spinal cord
Pelvic
nerves Parasympathetic
nerves
Ureter
Somatic
motor nerves

Urinary bladder

External urethral
sphincter

126
 Acute Renal Failure

Kidney damage leads to accumulation of

urea and H+ (acidosis) in the blood
(among others):

 Actue Glomerular nephritis.

 Blockage of renal tract.
 Poisons (mercuric ions i.e. Calomel; carbon
tetrachloride; many others).
 Severe ischemia (shock) – sometimes
kidney can recover.

127
What ions (that normally are filtered or secreted)
might accumulate in the blood in renal
failure?

 K+ (decreased tubular secretion)

 H+ (decreased tubular secretion)

 Creatinine (Cr) and Urea (BUN) (decreased

filtration)

128
 Learning Outcomes

You will be able to:

26.7A Describe the effects of aging on the kidneys.

129
 Effects of Aging
A. Gradual decrease in kidney size (only one-third of
one kidney needed).
B. Amount of blood flowing through - gradually
decreases.

C. Number of glomeruli decrease; ability to

secrete & reabsorb decreases.
D. Ability to concentrate urine declines - less
responsive to ADH/aldosterone.

E. Reduced ability to participate in vitamin D

synthesis contributing to Ca2+ deficiency
(osteoporosis, bone fractures).
130