ENGLISH FOR

ENGINEERING
Language Conventions for Technical Discourse
Learning Outcomes
That at the end of the lecture students will be able to :
1. Identify the various types of sentences
2. Identify the voicings of sentences
3. Convert sentences from one voicing to another
4. Identify the use and purpose of tenses in technical discourse
5. Identify the various modalities associated with technical discourse
6. Deploy the correct tense system and modality in sentence and paragraph
construction in technical discourse

English for Engineering Week 4

The Sentence and the Phrase: Structure
and Types
Difference between a sentence and
a clause
 A sentence expresses a COMPLETE thought. Clauses sometimes
cannot express a COMPLETE thought
 Sentences comprises one or two more clauses.
 Clauses are more frequent in oral language while sentences
make up the majority of written language

English for Engineering Week 4

Types of Clauses
 Independent Clauses
 Dependent Clauses
Types of Sentences
 Simple Sentence:
 Compound Sentences
 Complex Sentences
Simple Sentence
Consist of only ONE independent clause with no other clauses.
Example:
 I love cakes.

 Being a person who loves cakes, I love cakes.

 Being a person who loves cakes, I love cakes with all types of
fancy icings and layers of cream.
Compound Sentence
A sentence that contains TWO or more INDEPENDENT phrases:
Example:
 I love cakes and my brother loves puddings.
 It was a rainy day; the sun was out of sight and the blustery wind kept

most folks at home.

 John did not finish his homework; consequently, his mother scolded him.
Complex Sentence
Is a sentence that contains one independent clause and one or
more dependent clauses.
The dependent clauses usually add information to the
independent clauses
Example:
 Because life is complex, we need complex sentences.
 Because people know that I am an English teacher,they make

allowances for how I dress and what I say.

Compound-Complex Sentences
Sentences that contain TWO or more INDEPENDENT clauses and ONE or
more DEPENDENT Clauses.
Examples:
After he had gone home, Joseph packed his bags and rode away into the
sunset.
Some people tell me that my grading is too tough, and others tell me that
my assignments are boring.*
*dependent clauses do occur with independent clauses often.
Voicings in Sentence Construction
Voicings in Sentence Construction
Voicings indicate whether the SUBJECT is doing the action (Active) or the
OBJECT is having an action performed on it (Passive)
Voicings indicate the focus of the sentence:
 Active voicing indicates that the emphasis is on the SUBJECT

 Passive voicing indicates that ACTION or the OBJECT is being emphasized

Example 1
ACTIVE: We introduced 150 ml of hydrochloric acid into the
beaker to induce a 15-minute reaction from the mixture
PASSIVE: 150 ml of hydrochloric acid was introduced into the
beaker to induce a 15-minute reaction from the mixture
Example 2
ACTIVE: Team A used a 10% alcohol mixture in their experiment while
Team B used the 30% alcohol mixture in their experiment. Both
teams reported positive results for their experiments with Team B
reporting a difference of approximately 10 cm3 of gas X

PASSIVE: A 10% alcohol mixture was used by Team A in their

experiment while the 30% alcohol mixture was used in Team B’s
experiment. Positive results were reported for both experiments with
a difference of approximately 10 cm3 of gas X reported by Team B.
Outline of Conversion
 The SUBJECT in the Passive Voice is removed (Example 1) or is
moved (Example 2).
 Verb has changed from active verb to verb “be” + “past
participle”
 Example : “introduced” (Example 1) to “was introduced” (Example 1)

English for Engineering Week 4

 Outline of Conversion
 Prepositional Phrases remained unchanged in position

Example 1:
ACTIVE: We introduced 150 ml of hydrochloric acid into the beaker to induce a
15-minute reaction from the mixture.
PASSIVE: 150 ml of hydrochloric acid was introduced into the beaker to induce
a 15-minute reaction from the mixture.

English for Engineering Week 4

Outline of Conversion
 Prepositional Phrases remained unchanged in position

Example 1:
ACTIVE: Team A used a 10% alcohol mixture in their experiment while Team B
used the 30% alcohol mixture in their experiment.

PASSIVE: A 10% alcohol mixture was used by Team A in their experiment

while the 30% alcohol mixture was used in Team B in their experiment.
List of Verb Changes by Tense Type
Tense / Modal Active Passive

Simple Present catch am caught

catches is caught
are caught
Present Continuous am catching am being caught
is catching is being caught
are caching are being caught
Present Perfect has caught has been caught
have caught have been caught
List of Verb Changes by Tense Type
Tense / Modal Active Passive
Simple Past Caught was caught
were caught
Past Continuous was catching was being caught
were catching were being caught
Past Perfect had caught had been caught
List of Verb Changes by Tense Type
Tense / Modal Active Passive

Simple Future will catch will be caught

shall catch shall be caught
Can / may / must, can catch can be caught
must catch must be caught
The use of voicings in Technical
Discourse
Depending on the requirements of certain publications, most journals,

especially those in the UK, still prefers the passive voice in technical
discourse as their focus is on the processes and products rather than the
person.
 In the US, there is a recent preference for the active voice in technical
discourse
 Please refer and read through sample of publications and requirements for
technical discourse from your supervisors before writing.
Verb Tense System in Technical Discourse
Verb Tenses
 present a relationship between
 the present moment (now)
 another moment or period in time (which may be long or short).
 These moments or periods may be in the past, present or future.
 manage time by placing them within particular relationships or
‘time
frameworks’.
When are certain verb tenses used?
 In various types of scientific writing, some time frameworks are more
commonly used than others.
 Their frequency varies from one section of one text type or section to
another, and they can also vary between one scientific discipline and
another.
 The use of tenses in this lecture is discussed from the point of view of
various sections of a technical discourse text
Present Tense: Introduction
Introductions needs to include background information which is
generally accepted as fact in a discipline or report. You also need to
explain why the research you are reporting is important. It is usually
presented in the present tense

Example:
Genomics provides crucial information for rational drug design.
Present Tense: Introduction
For example, the use of the present tense also indicates to the reader that the
author believes that the research findings are still true and relevant, even
though the original research may have been conducted sometime ago.
Example:
Many of the lakes and wetlands in the region are located in craters or valleys
blocked by early Pliocene lava flows (Ollier & Joyce, 1964).
Present Perfect Tense: Introduction
 Used to convey currency or recency when reporting research
 Currency may be positive (asserting that previous studies/assertions have
established a firm research foundation) or negative (asserting that not
enough relevant or valid work has yet been done).
 Positive and negative currency can even be asserted in the same sentence,
as in the example below (which uses the passive voice)
Present Perfect Tense: Introduction
A great deal of research has been conducted on the basic
techniques of nuclear transfer, but few experiments have been
carried out to discover the most appropriate age of the
cytoplasm to support nuclear transfer most effectively.
Introduction: Past Tense
May be used to present a summary of the findings/
incident as well. E.g.
The incident happened between 11-12 pm at the
location B.
Methods: Simple Past Tense
Usually used to describe actions taken or the methods that have been used in
your research or action.
Example
 Total phosphorous (TP) and total nitrogen (TN) were measured in the

laboratory using standard procedures.

 The standard protocol was followed for the preparation of the media

from stock solutions.

Methods: Present Tense
Is used to report data from charts, tables and figures:
Examples
 Table 1 above demonstrates the success of cloning in various
animal species.
 Figure 2 below shows methylation in mouse 2-cell embryos.
Results: Past Tense
In the results section, use the past tense to detail the results you
obtained.
Examples:
 Overall, more than 70% of the insects collected were non-

phytophagous.
 Results indicated that prolonged exposure to ultra-violet radiation had a

positive correlation with the development of melanomas.

 Following activation of NT oocytes with strontium, the cell cycle resumed in

both groups
Results: Present Tense
As in the previous sections, use the present tense when you refer to
figures, tables and graphs.
Examples
 Figure 1 displays the comparative variation in the morphology of

donor chromatin in both age groups of oocytes.

 Table 1 below shows the stream flows calculated for each stream

using Equation 1.
Discussion: Present Tense
In your discussion section, you will explain the significance of the
results. The present tense is normally used for this.
Example:
 Removal of vegetation for agricultural purposes appears to negatively

affect the water quality of streams

 The attenuation process indicates that a significant portion of the energy

of the signal was affected by the materiel.

English for Engineering Week 4

Discussion: Past Tense + Present Tense
Writers may use the past tense to summarise their findings,in
combination with the present tense to explain or interpret what
the results mean.
Example:
As the maxima and minima did not correspond to high and low tides,
it is possible that the patterns observed may not be the result of
mixing of waters with different concentrations.
 “may not be” indicates hedging or tentativeness of the sentence; a

feature of technical discourse

English for Engineering Week 4

Discussion: Past Tense with Present Tense
Example (with less tentativeness):
Leaf carbon and phenolic content did not differ across sites, indicating
that the response of secondary plant chemicals such as phenolics to
water is complex.

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Conclusion: Combination
 In the final section of your thesis or report you
summarise the main findings and the major implications of the
study, point out any limitations, and offer suggestions
for future research. To do these things you may use a
combination of tenses.
 This is because the conclusion contains a mixture of reporting
requirements; some of which deals with facts, others with
reported findings and opinions as well.

English for Engineering Week 4

 Conclusion: Combination of Tenses
Although the study found evidence of tillage and
irrigation within the study area, from the data collected it was
not possible to determine if the effects of agriculture
upstream cause (or caused) higher levels of total nitrogen
downstream. Further studies are therefore necessary to
determine the effects of agriculture on the health of
Stringybark Creek.

English for Engineering Week 4

Grammatical Moods Technical
Discourse

English for Engineering Week 4

Definition of Grammatical Mood

 Grammatical mood is a verb feature that allows writers

to express their attitude toward what they are saying.
 The most commonly used mood is the indicative mood,
which is used to express factual statements.
 The subjunctive mood refers to hypothetical situations.
 The imperative mood gives commands or makes
requests.

English for Engineering Week 4

Indicative Mood

The indicative mood simply means stating facts, which is, of course, what all
good technical descriptions must do.
More generally, this means ensuring that each sentence in a technical
description is making a statement that is demonstrably true, and that does
not leave any scope for interpretation (or misinterpretation).

Example:
 The boiling temperature of the compound is 132K.
 The size of the vessel is approximately 100 cm3
Subjunctive Mood
 Is used to explore hypotheticals as well as express
suggestions:
 Example (hypothetical)
 If the amplitude of the current carrier wave were to be
increased, the resultant power of the machine will be
increased
 Example (suggestion)
 It is suggested that lowering the temperature of the casting
mold should induce a more favourable response
Imperative Mood
A grammatical mood that forms commands or requests, including the giving of
prohibition or permission, or any other kind of advice or exhortation.

Example:
Pour 250ml of HCI (1 mol/l) into the beaker and stir it with not more than 60
revolutions per minute for 10 minutes.
Modality in Technical Discourse
Expressing tentativeness in scientific reporting

English for Engineering Week 4

Modality in Technical Discourse
1. An indication of tentativeness in reporting of data or in making
propositions such as hypothesis or where data is not enough to reach
a reasonable conclusion
2. Achieved through the use of modal verbs
3. Modal verbs are a type of auxiliary or “helping” verb. Auxiliary
verbs help complete the form and meaning of main verbs.
4. The principal modal verbs are can, could, may, might, must, should,
and would.
5. They combine with main verbs to express meanings such as ability,
possibility, permission, obligation, and necessity:
Examples
1. Cimetidine can improve mean fat absorption in adolescents with
cystic fibrosis. [ability, present tense]
2. At first the phlebotomist could not locate the vein. [ability, past
tense]
3. We thought we might receive more funding for our study.
[possibility, past tense]
4. Scientists may perform experiments on human subjects only with
ethics approval. [permission. Note: can has become almost
interchangeable with may to indicate permission, especially in
North America.]•
Examples
1. We must replicate their experiment prior to testing our own method.
[necessity]
2. We should seek ethics approval before advertising for participants.
[obligation]
3. Studying these organisms would provide insight into their protective
mechanisms. [possibility]
End of Lecture

English for Engineering Week 4