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Petroleum Geology
Petroleum System
A Petroleum System requires timely
convergence of certain geologic factors and
geologic events.
These Include:
Seal
Reservoir rock
Migration
Mature source rock
Generation, Migration and Trapping
of Hydrocarbons
Seal
Fault
Oil/water
(impermeable)
contact (OWC)
Migration route
Seal
Seal
Hydrocarbon Reservoir
accumulation rock
in the
reservoir rock
Top of maturity
Source rock
Cross Section of a Petroleum System
(Foreland Basin Example)
Geographic Extent of Petroleum System
Extent of Play
Extent of Prospect/Field
O
O O
Stratigraphic
Extent of
Petroleum
Overburden Rock
System Essential
Sedimentary
Seal Rock
Basin Fill
Elements
of Reservoir Rock
Petroleum
Pod of Active System Source Rock
Source Rock
Underburden Rock
Petroleum Reservoir (O)
Basement Rock
Fold-and-Thrust Belt Top Oil Window
(arrows indicate relative fault motion)
Top Gas Window
Magma rising
Asthenosphere
Magma forming
• Earthquake centers
Basic Geologic Principles
• Uniformitarianism
• Original Horizontality
• Superposition
• Cross-Cutting Relationships
Cross-Cutting Relationships
K
J
I
H
G
Angular Unconformity
C
E
F
D Igneous
B
Dike
A
Types of Unconformities
• Disconformity
– An unconformity in which the beds above and below
are parallel
• Angular Unconformity
– An unconformity in which the older bed intersect the
younger beds at an angle
• Nonconformity
– An unconformity in which younger sedimentary
rocks overlie older metamorphic or intrusive
igneous rocks
Geologic Time Chart
Eon Era Period Epoch
Quaternary
period
Quaternary Recent
0 0 0 Pleistocene
Billions of years ago
Cenozoic Era
1
Mesozoic
100 Cretaceous 20 Miocene
(Precambrian)
Tertiary
period
Cryptozoic
2 150 Jurassic 30 Oligocene
200 Triassic 40
Eocene
3
250 Permian 50
4 300 Pennsylvanian
60 Paleocene
Mississippian
4.6 350
Paleozoic
Devonian
400
Silurian
450 Ordovician
500
550 Cambrian
600
Geologic Time Scale - Biostratigraphy
Triassic period Permian period
Jurassic period
Pennsylvanian period
Mississippian period
245 m.y
323 m.y Devonian
146 m.y 208 m.y 290 m.y period
363 m.y
409 m.y
Silurian
439 m.y
65 m.y 1 b.y period
57 m.y 510 m.y 2 b.y
570 m.y Evolution
35 m.y
of cells with
23 m.y nucleus
5 m.y
3 b.y First
0.01 m.y fossil
4.6 billion cells
Recrystallization due to
Crystallization Sedimentation, burial
heat, pressure, or
(Solidification of melt) and lithification
chemically active fluids
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Breccia Conglomerate
Examples
Sandstone Shale
The Rock Cycle
Magma
n
a
Weathering,
Transportation
Sedimentary and Deposition
Rock Sediment
i
Minerals - Definition
Naturally Occurring
Solid
Generally Formed by
Inorganic Processes
Ordered Internal
Arrangement of Atoms
(Crystal Structure)
Chemical Composition
and Physical Properties
Fixed or Vary Within
Quartz Crystals A Definite Range
Average Detrital Mineral
Composition of Shale and Sandstone
Mineral Composition Shale (%) Sandstone (%)
Clay Minerals 60 5
Quartz 30 65
Feldspar 4 10-15
Carbonate 3 <1
Pore
Throat Pores Provide the
Volume to Contain
Hydrocarbon Fluids
Negligible
Porosity
Illite Reduction
High Irreducible
Water Saturation
Migration of
Fines Problem
Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone
Hatters Pond Field, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs
Authigenic Chlorite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Iron-Rich
Varieties React
With Acid
Occurs in Several
Deeply Buried
Sandstones With
High Reservoir
Quality
Occurs as Thin
Coats on Detrital
Grain Surfaces
Migration of Fines
Problem
Carter Sandstone
North Blowhorn Creek Oil Unit
Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
Effects of Clays on Reservoir Quality
100
10
10
1
1
0.1
0.1
0.01 0.01
2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 18
Porosity (%)
(modified from Kugler and McHugh, 1990)
Influence of Clay-Mineral
Distribution on Effective Porosity
fe Clay
Minerals
Dispersed Clay
Detrital Quartz
Grains
fe
Clay Lamination
Structural Clay fe
(Rock Fragments,
Rip-Up Clasts,
Clay-Replaced Grains)
Diagenesis
Diagenesis is the Post-
Depositional Chemical and
Mechanical Changes that
Carbonate
Occur in Sedimentary Rocks
Cemented
Some Diagenetic Effects Include
Oil Compaction
Stained Precipitation of Cement
Dissolution of Framework
Grains and Cement
The Effects of Diagenesis May
Enhance or Degrade Reservoir
Quality
Whole Core
Misoa Formation, Venezuela
Fluids Affecting Diagenesis
Precipitation
Evaporation Evapotranspiration
Water Table
Infiltration
Meteoric
Water COMPACTIONAL
WATER Meteoric
Water
Petroleum
Fluids Zone of abnormal pressure
Isotherms
CH 4,CO 2,H2 S
Dissolution of
Partially
Framework Grains
Dissolved
(Feldspar, for
Feldspar
Example) and
Cement may
Enhance the
Pore Interconnected
Pore System
Quartz Detrital
Grain This is Called
Secondary Porosity
Thin Section Micrograph - Plane Polarized Light
Avile Sandstone, Neuquen Basin, Argentina
1
Hydrocarbon Generation,
Migration and Accumulation
Organic Matter in Sedimentary Rocks
Kerogen
Disseminated Organic Matter in
Sedimentary Rocks That is Insoluble
in Oxidizing Acids, Bases, and
Vitrinite Organic Solvents.
Vitrinite
A nonfluorescent type of organic material
in petroleum source rocks derived
primarily from woody material.
Reflected-Light Micrograph
of Coal
Interpretation of Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
(based on early oil window maturity)
Hydrocarbon
TOC in Shale TOC in Carbonates
Generation
(wt. %) (wt. %)
Potential
Poor 0.0-0.5 0.0-0.2
Organic Debris
Diagenesis
Oil Reservoir
Cracking
Methane
Metagenesis
Carbon
(modified from Foster and Beaumont, 1991, after Dow and O’Conner, 1982)
Depositional Environments
and Systems
Aggradational
Progradational
Retrogradational
Braided
Meandering
(Suspended load
system)
Anastomosing
Cut bank
Photo by W. Ayers
30 CM
Fossil Dunes
• Sediment sorting
• Constant wind
force
• Constant wind
direction
Fan Deposition
Example
Alluvial sedimentation
Sediment Input Mississippi
Delta
Types
Fluvial
Dominated
Wave Tide
Dominated Dominated Tidal energy flux
Distributary
Photo by L. Klatzel-Mudry
STS61A-42-0051 Mississippi River Delta, Louisiana, U.S.A.
October 1985
20 mi
NASA PHOTO
STS61C-40-0096 Rio Paraiba do Sul, Brazil January 1986
NASA PHOTO
STS61B-49-0101 Mouths of the Irrawaddy River, Burma (Myanmar)
November 1985
50 mi
NASA PHOTO
World’s
Largest
Delta
200 km
STRIKE
DIP
GANGES RIVER DELTA
BAY OF BENGAL
STS084-721-029 Selenga River Delta, Lake Baykal, Russia May 1997
NASA PHOTO
STS068-206-040 Selenga River Delta, Russia October 1994
NASA PHOTO
STS51C-143-0027 Mississippi River Delta and Coastal Louisiana, U.S.A. January 1985
NASA PHOTO
Mississippi River, Bird’s Foot Delta
NASA PHOTO
STS077-718-054 Nile River Delta, Egypt May 1996
NASA PHOTO
STS069-737-051 Essequibo River, Guyana September 1995
NASA PHOTO
STS033-071-052 Kalimantan Barat Province, Indonesia
November 1989
NASA PHOTO
Barrier Shoreline
Washover fan
Ebb
Tide
Delta
Flood
Tide
Delta Lagoon
Wind
Back-barrier
marsh
Sea
Shoreface
Sands
Shelf Silts
BARRIER SHORELINE
NASA PHOTO
Carbonate Depositional
Environments and Systems
Carbonate Reef System
30 km
S N
Back Reef SL Open Water
(Lagoon)
150 Lime Grainstone
m
Reef
Forereef
Miliolids
100 Shelf
Orbitolina
50 Boundstone Chalky
lime mudstone Globigerina
mudstone
NASA PHOTO
ANDROS
ISLAND,
TONGUE
OF THE
OCEAN
NASA
PHOTO
50 mi
GREAT
BARRIER
REEF,
AUSTRALIA
NASA
PHOTO
Schematic Reservoir Layering Profile
in a Carbonate Reservoir
Flow unit
Baffles/barriers
3250
3250 3250 3200 3250
3300 3250
3200
3250
3350 3350
Anticline Syncline
Fold Terminology
Anticline
Youngest
Syncline rock
Oldest rock
Modified from xxx)
Overturned Folds
Photograph by XXX
Methods of Structural Evaluation
A A’
1000
SL A’
OIL
-1000
++
-2000 + +
-3000
+
+ + +
OIL/Water
Contact
A
2000 Depth (ft)
Sedimentary Basin and
Stress Fields
Fault Types Basin Geometries
Foreland Basin
(Compressive Stress)
Thrust fault
Pull-apart Basin
(Lateral Stress)
Wrench fault
Faults
Dip Angle
Hydrocarbon Traps
• Structural traps
• Stratigraphic traps
• Combination traps
Structural Hydrocarbon Traps - Fault
Oil or Gas
Fault
Water
Structural Hydrocarbon Traps
Gas
Shale Oil Oil/Gas Closure
Trap
Contact
Oil/Water
Contact
Oil
Fracture Basement Fold Trap
Salt
Salt Diapir
Oil
Dome
Gas
Oil
Sandstone
Shale
Fault Trap
Oil / Gas
Stratigraphic Hydrocarbon Traps
Unconformity Pinch out
Uncomformity Oil/Gas
Oil/Gas
Oil/Gas
Increase Tortuosity of
Fluid Flow
Calcite cement Heterogeneity May
Result From:
Depositional Features
Oil Diagenetic Effects
Fractures
Faults and Fractures may
be Open (Conduits) or
Closed (Barriers) to Fluid
Flow
(Whole Core Photograph, Misoa
Sandstone, Venezuela)
Geologic Reservoir Heterogeneity
Bounding
Surface
Bounding
Surface
Field Wide
Determined
From Well Logs,
Seismic Lines, 100's
Statistical m
Modeling,
etc.
1-10 km
Interwell
Reservoir 10's
Sandstone m
100's m
1-10's
Well-Bore
10-100's
m
10-100's mm
mm
Unaided Eye
Hand Lens or
Petrographic or Binocular Microscope
Scanning Electron
Microscope (modified from Weber, 1986)
Scales of Investigation Used in
Reservoir Characterization
300 m Relative Volume
14
Gigascopic 50 m Well Test 10
300 m
Reservoir Model 12
Megascopic Grid Cell 2 x 10
5m 150 m
2m
Wireline Log 7
1m
Interval 3 x 10
Macroscopic cm 2
Core Plug 5 x 10
mm - mm Geological
Microscopic 1
(modified from Hurst, 1993)
Thin Section
Stages In The Generation of
An Integrated Geological Reservoir Model
Geologic Activities
Regional Geologic
Framework
Depositional
Model (As Needed)
Integrated Fluid
Log Analysis Model
Well Test Analysis Geologic Model
(As Needed)
Applications Studies
Reserves Estimation
Simulation
Model Testing
And Revision