Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd

Chapter 11
Chapter 11
Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Chapter 11
Summary
Sine waves
The sinusoidal waveform (sine wave) is the fundamental
alternating current (ac) and alternating voltage waveform.
Electrical sine waves are

named from the
mathematical function
with the same shape.

Chapter 11
Summary
A wave is a disturbance. Unlike water waves, electrical
waves cannot be seen directly but they have similar
characteristics. All periodic waves can be constructed from
sine waves, which is why sine waves are fundamental.

Chapter 11
Summary
Sine waves
Sine waves are characterized by the amplitude and period.
The amplitude is the maximum value of a voltage or current;
the period is the time interval for one complete cycle.
20 V
15 V
The amplitude (A) 10 V
A
of this sine wave
t (s)
is 20 V 0V
0 25 37.5 50.0
The period is 50.0 s -10 V

-15 V
-20 V
T
Chapter 11
Summary
Sine waves
The period of a sine wave can be measured between
any two corresponding points on the waveform.
TT T T
A
T T
By contrast, the amplitude of a sine wave is only

measured from the center to the maximum point.

Chapter 11
Summary
Frequency
Frequency ( f ) is the number of cycles that a sine wave
completes in one second.
Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz).
If 3 cycles of a wave occur in one second, the frequency

is 3.0 Hz 1.0 s

Chapter 11
Summary
Period and frequency
The period and frequency are reciprocals of each other.
1 1
f  and T 
T f
Thus, if you know one, you can easily find the other.
(The 1/x key on your calculator is handy for converting between f and T.)
If the period is 50 s, the frequency is 0.02 MHz = 20 kHz.

Chapter 11
Summary
Sinusoidal voltage
Generation of a sinesources
wave
Sinusoidal voltages are produced by ac generators and
electronic oscillators.
When a conductor rotates in a constant magnetic
field, a sinusoidal wave is generated.
N B D S
A B C D
A
Motion of conductor Conduc tor

When the Whenlooptheisconductor is moving parallel
moving perpendicular with
to the
lines of the lines
flux, theofmaximum
flux, no voltage is induced.
voltage is induced.

Chapter 11
AC generator (alternator)
Generators convert rotational energy to electrical energy. A
stationary field alternator with a rotating armature is shown.
The armature has an induced voltage, which is connected
through slip rings and brushes to a load. The armature loops
are wound on a magnetic core (not shown for simplicity).
Small alternators may use a

permanent magnet as shown N S
here; other use field coils to
produce the magnetic flux.
brushes
arm ature
slip rings

Chapter 11
AC generator (alternator)
By increasing the number of poles, the number of cycles
per revolution is increased. A four-pole generator will
produce two complete cycles in each revolution.

Chapter 11
Readout
Function generators
Typical controls:
Function selection
Frequency
Range
Adjust Outputs
Output level (amplitude)
Duty cycle
DC offset CMOS output
Sine Square Triangle

Chapter 11
Sine wave voltage and current values
There are several ways to specify the voltage of a

sinusoidal voltage waveform. The amplitude of a sine
wave is also called the peak value, abbreviated as VP for
a voltage waveform. 20 V
15 V
10 V
VP
The peak voltage of
0V t (s)
this waveform is 20 V. 0 25 37.5 50.0
-10 V
-15 V
-20 V

Chapter 11
The voltage of a sine wave can also be specified as

either the peak-to-peak or the rms value. The peak-to-
peak is twice the peak value. The rms value is 0.707
times the peak value. 20 V
15 V
The peak-to-peak 10 V
Vrms
voltage is 40 V. t (s)
0V
0 VPP 25 37.5 50.0
The rms voltage
-10 V
is 14.1 V.
-15 V
-20 V

Chapter 11
For some purposes, the average value (actually the half-

wave average) is used to specify the voltage or current.
By definition, the average value is as 0.637 times the
peak value. 20 V
15 V
10 V
The average value for Vavg
the sinusoidal voltage 0V t (s)
0 25 37.5 50.0
is 12.7 V.
-10 V
-15 V
-20 V

Chapter 11
Angular measurement
Angular measurements can be made in degrees (o) or
radians. The radian (rad) is the angle that is formed when
the arc is equal to the radius of a circle. There are 360o or
2p radians in one complete revolution.
1.0
0.8
R 0.6
0.4
0.2
R 0 0 p p 3p p 5p 3p 7p 2p
-0.2 4 2 4 4 2 4
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0

Chapter 11
Angular measurement
Because there are 2p radians in one complete revolution
and 360o in a revolution, the conversion between radians
and degrees is easy to write. To find the number of
radians, given the number of degrees:
2p rad
rad   degrees
360
To find the number of degrees, given the radians:

360
deg   rad
2p rad

Chapter 11
Sine wave equation
Instantaneous values of a wave are shown as v or i. The

equation for the instantaneous voltage (v) of a sine
wave is
v  V p sin 
where
Vp = Peak voltage
 = Angle in rad or degrees
If the peak voltage is 25 V, the instantaneous

voltage at 50 degrees is 19.2 V

Chapter 11
Sine wave equation

A plot of the example in the previous slide (peak at
25 V) is shown. The instantaneous voltage at 50o is
19.2 V as previously calculated.
90
Vp Vp = 25 V
v = Vp sin = 19.2 V
= 50
0 50
Vp

Chapter 11
Phase shift
The phase of a sine wave is an angular measurement
that specifies the position of a sine wave relative to a
reference. To show that a sine wave is shifted to the
left or right of this reference, a term is added to the
equation given previously.
v  VP sin   f 
where
f = Phase shift

Chapter 11
Phase shift Example of a wave that lags the

reference …and the equation
Referenc e has a negative phase
40 shift
30 Peak voltage
20 v = 30 V sin ( - 45o)
Voltage (V)
10
0
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405
-20
-30 Notice that a lagging sine
- 40 wave is below the axis at 0o
Angle ()

Chapter 11
Phase shift Example of a wave that leads the

reference
Notice that a leading sine
Referenc e
40
wave is above the axis at 0o
30 Peak voltage
20
v = 30 V sin ( + 45o)
Voltage (V)
10
-45 0 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

-10
-20 …and the equation
-30 has a positive phase
-40
shift
Angle ()

Chapter 11
Phasors
The sine wave can be represented as the projection of a
vector rotating at a constant rate. This rotating vector is
called a phasor.
90
180 0 0 90 180 360

Chapter 11
Phasors
Phasors allow ac calculations to use basic trigonometry.
The sine function in trigonometry is the ratio of the
opposite side of a right triangle to the adjacent side.
hypotenuse
opposite side
right
 angle
op
po
si
tes
i
de
s
i
n 
=
adjacent side h
yp
ot
enu
se

Chapter 11
Phasors
The position of a phasor at any instant can be expressed
as a positive angle, measured counterclockwise from 0
or as a negative angle equal to  - 360.
positive angle of 
negative angle of  - 360
phasor

Chapter 11
Angular velocity of a phasor
When a phasor rotates through 360 or 2p radians, one

complete cycle is traced out.
The velocity of rotation is called the angular velocity ().
 = 2pf
(Note that this angular velocity is expressed in radians per second.)
The instantaneous voltage at any point in time is given by
v = Vpsin 2pf

Chapter 11
Superimposed dc and ac voltages

Frequently dc and ac voltages are together in a waveform.
They can be added algebraically, to produce a composite
waveform of an ac voltage “riding” on a dc level.

Chapter 11
Pulse definitions
Ideal pulses
Leading (rising) edge Leading (falling) edge
Trailing (falling) edge Trailing (rising) edge
Baseline
Amplitude Amplitude
Baseline
Pulse Pulse
width width
(a) Positive-going pulse (b) Negative-going pulse

Chapter 11
Pulse definitions
Non-ideal pulses
A A
0.9 A
0.5 A
0.1A
t t
tW
tr tf
(a) Rise and fall times (b) Pulse width
Notice that rise and fall times are measured between

the 10% and 90% levels whereas pulse width is
measured at the 50% level.

Chapter 11
Triangular and sawtooth waves

Triangular and sawtooth waveforms are formed by
voltage or current ramps (linear increase/decrease)
Triangular waveforms have

positive-going and negative-
going ramps of equal slope.
The sawtooth waveform consists

of two ramps, one of much longer
duration than the other.

Chapter 11
Harmonics
All repetitive non-sinusoidal waveforms are composed
of a fundamental frequency (repetition rate of the
waveform) and harmonic frequencies.
Odd harmonics are frequencies that are odd multiples
of the fundamental frequency.
Even harmonics are frequencies that are even multiples
of the fundamental frequency.

Chapter 11
Harmonics
A square wave is composed only of the fundamental

frequency and odd harmonics (of the proper amplitude).

Chapter 11
Vertical section Summary Display section
Signal coupling Volts/Di v
Oscilloscopes The oscilloscope is divided into
AC From Analog
Amp
four main sections.
DC GND vertic al only
Ch 1 Conversion/storage
Vertical section sec tion
(Digital scopes only)
Signal coupling Volts/Di v Intensity
AC Vertical Digital Display section
DC GND
Amp
only To display sec tion
Ch 1
position (Digital
Conversion/storage
scopes only)
AC
Vertical Amp Analog
DC GND position
Ch 2
Trigger section AC
DC GND
Amp
Horizontal From horizontal sec tion
only
Conversion/storage
Ch 2 Intensity
Conversion/storage
(Digital scopes only) section
Digital
External trigger Trigger only
coupling source Trigger

Horizontal Control and proc ess
Trigger section section level and
AC
External trigger Trigger
slope
External coupling source Trigger Ch 2 Control and process
trigger DC Ch 1 level and Sec/Div
External
AC
DC Ch 2
slope
Sec /Div
Trigger
trigger Ch 1
Ext TimeTime base
circuits
Trigger
circuits base
Ext
Line Line Horizontal
Horizontal
position
position
AC
Power supply
AC
DC to all sec tions

Vertical section
Chapter 11 Signal coupling Volts/Di v
AC
Amp
Display section
DC GND
Vertical Analog
position only
AC
Amp
DC GND Intensity
Digital
only
Horizontal
Trigger section section
External trigger Trigger
coupling source Trigger Control and process
level and (Digital scopes only)
AC slope
External Ch 2 Sec /Div
trigger DC Ch 1
Trigger
circuits Time base
Ext
Line Horizontal
position
AC
Power supply
DC to all sec tions
Principles
Principlesofof
Electric
Electric
Circuits
Circuits
- Floyd
- Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall
Chapter 11
Summary
Oscilloscopes Display Vertical Horizontal
Trigger
VERTICAL
VERTICAL HORIZONTAL
HORIZONTAL TR
TIGGER
RIGGER
CH
CH11 CH
CH22 BOTHH
BOT SLOPE
SLOPE
ÐÐ ++
POSITION
POSITION POSITION
POSITION POSITION
POSITION LEVEL
LEVEL
VOLTS/DIV
VOLTS/DIV VOLTS/DIV
VOLTS/DIV SEC/DIV
SEC/DIV SOURCE
SOURCE
CH
CH11
CH
CH22
EXT
EXT
55VV 22mmVV 55VV 22mmVV 55s s 55nsns
LINE
LINE
COUPLING
COUPLING COUPLING
COUPLING
AC-DC-GND
AC-DC-GND AC-DC-GND
AC-DC-GND TR
TIG
RIGCOUP
COUP
DC
DC AC
AC
DISPLAY
DISPLAY RR
PPOB EECOMP CH
OB
55VV
COMP CH11 CH
CH22 EXT
EXTTRIG
TRIG
INT
INTENSIT
ENSITYY

Chapter 11
Selected Key Terms
Sine wave A type of waveform that follows a cyclic
sinusoidal pattern defined by the formula
y = A sin .
Alternating Current that reverses direction in response to a
current change in source voltage polarity.
Period (T) The time interval for one complete cycle of a

periodic waveform.
Frequency (f) A measure of the rate of change of a periodic
function; the number of cycles completed in 1 s.
Hertz The unit of frequency. One hertz equals one
cycle per second.
Chapter 11
Selected Key Terms
Instantaneous The voltage or current value of a waveform at
value a given instant in time.
Peak value The voltage or current value of a waveform at

its maximum positive or negative points.
Peak-to-peak The voltage or current value of a waveform
value measured from its minimum to its maximum
points.
rms value The value of a sinusoidal voltage that indicates
its heating effect, also known as effective
value. It is equal to 0.707 times the peak value.
rms stands for root mean square.

Chapter 11
Selected Key Terms
Radian A unit of angular measurement. There are 2p
radians in one complete 360o revolution.
Phasor A representation of a sine wave in terms of its
magnitude (amplitude) and direction (phase angle).
Amplitude The maximum value of a voltage or current.
Pulse A type of waveform that consists of two equal

and opposite steps in voltage or current
separated by a time interval.
Harmonics The frequencies contained in a composite
waveform, which are integer multiples of the
pulse repetition frequency.
Chapter 11
Quiz
1. In North America, the frequency of ac utility voltage is

60 Hz. The period is
a. 8.3 ms
b. 16.7 ms
c. 60 ms
d. 60 s

Chapter 11
Quiz
2. The amplitude of a sine wave is measured

a. at the maximum point
b. between the minimum and maximum points
c. at the midpoint
d. anywhere on the wave

Chapter 11
Quiz
3. An example of an equation for a waveform that lags the

reference is
a. v = -40 V sin ()
b. v = 100 V sin ( + 35o)
c. v = 5.0 V sin ( - 27o)
d. v = 27 V

Chapter 11
Quiz
4. In the equation v = Vp sin  , the letter v stands for the

a. peak value
b. average value
c. rms value
d. instantaneous value

Chapter 11
Quiz
5. The time base of an oscilloscope is determined by the

setting of the
a. vertical controls
b. horizontal controls
c. trigger controls
d. none of the above

Chapter 11
Quiz
6. A sawtooth waveform has

a. equal positive and negative going ramps
b. two ramps - one much longer than the other
c. two equal pulses
d. two unequal pulses

Chapter 11
Quiz
7. The number of radians in 90o are

a. p/2
b. p
c. 2p/3
d. 2p

Chapter 11
Quiz
8. For the waveform shown, the same power would be

delivered to a load with a dc voltage of
60 V
a. 21.2 V 45 V
30 V
b. 37.8 V
c. 42.4 V 0V
0 25 37.5 50.0
t (s)
d. 60.0 V -30 V
-45 V
-60 V

Chapter 11
Quiz
9. A square wave consists of

a. the fundamental and odd harmonics
b. the fundamental and even harmonics
c. the fundamental and all harmonics
d. only the fundamental

Chapter 11
Quiz
10. A control on the oscilloscope that is used to set the

desired number of cycles of a wave on the display is
a. volts per division control
b. time per division control
c. trigger level control
d. horizontal position control

Chapter 11
Quiz
Answers:
1. b 6. b
2. a 7. a
3. c 8. c
4. d 9. a
5. b 10. b

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Chapter 11

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Electrical sine waves are

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

The period is 50.0 s -10 V

By contrast, the amplitude of a sine wave is only

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

If 3 cycles of a wave occur in one second, the frequency

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

The period and frequency are reciprocals of each other.

If the period is 50 s, the frequency is 0.02 MHz = 20 kHz.

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Motion of conductor Conduc tor

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Small alternators may use a

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Sine Square Triangle

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Sine wave voltage and current values

There are several ways to specify the voltage of a

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Sine wave voltage and current values

The voltage of a sine wave can also be specified as

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Sine wave voltage and current values

For some purposes, the average value (actually the half-

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

To find the number of degrees, given the radians:

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Sine wave equation

Instantaneous values of a wave are shown as v or i. The

If the peak voltage is 25 V, the instantaneous

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Sine wave equation

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Phase shift Example of a wave that lags the

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Phase shift Example of a wave that leads the

-45 0 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

180 0 0 90 180 360

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

negative angle of  - 360

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Angular velocity of a phasor

When a phasor rotates through 360 or 2p radians, one

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Superimposed dc and ac voltages

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Notice that rise and fall times are measured between

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Triangular and sawtooth waves

Triangular waveforms have

The sawtooth waveform consists

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall

A square wave is composed only of the fundamental