TISSUES

APICAL CELL THEORY

HISTOGEN THEORY
TUNICA CORPUS THEORY: This theory was proposed by Schmidt
(1924). This theory is applicable on shoot apex; it is based on planes of
division. According to this theory two types of layers are found in the
shoot apex:
(a) TUNICA:
 This is peripheral layer. Epidermis
is formed by this layer. In tunica
cells, anticlinal division takes place
only in one plane.
 Anticlinal division occurs at right
angle to longitudinal axis of cell.
Surface area of the plant organs
increases due to anticlinal divisions.
 When division occurs in single anticlinal plane they do not increase
the number of layers.
 Generally, tunica represent only single layer, but sometimes it is
multilayered, then the outer most layer forms the epidermis and
remaining layers form rest types of the tissue system with the
association of corpus.
(b) CORPUS:
 The mass of cells present below the tunica is called Corpus.
 The cells of this zone divide in all directions (many planes) due to
which volume increases.
 The mass of these cells mainly forms the cortex.
 The cells of corpus are usually larger than the cells of tunica. It forms
rest of the tissue system.
KORPER-KAPPE THEORY: (‘Korper’ means body and ‘Kappe’
means cap)
 It was proposed by Schuepp (1917). According to this theory, the
cells of central and peripheral part of the root apex exhibit differences
in planes of cell divisions.
 In peripheral region each cell first divides transversely and there
after the lower daughter cell divides longitudinally thus forming the
shape of T. Such divisions are called the Kappe divisions.
 In the central region T is inverted (^) as the second division takes
place in the upper daughter cell. Such divisions are called the Korper
divisions, As a result of these T or ^ divisions, the cells in root apex
remain arranged in rows.
 By Kappe divisions,
the number of rows
increases downwardly
and by Korper divisions
upwardly.
 This is a rejected
theory because there is
no relation of
arrangement of cells to
tissue" formation.
PERMANENT TISSUES
Permanent tissues are composed of cells which have lost the power of
division temporarily or permanently. They are formed by division and
differentiation of meristematic tissues.
Their cells may be living or dead permanent tissues. These are of
three types:
1. Simple tissue (Homogenous tissue)
2. Complex tissues (Heterogenous tissue)
3. Special tissue
(A) Simple tissue: These tissues are made up of similar cells that
perform a common function. Simple tissues are of three types:
(a) Parenchyma
(b) Collenchyma
(c) Sclerenchyma
PARENCHYMA: (GK. Para = beside, enchyma = to pour)

 The term Parenchyma was coined by

GREW
 Parenchyma is the most common type of
simple permanent tissue found in all groups
of plants.
 Parenchyma is composed of living cells
which are variable in their morphology and
physiology but concerned with the
vegetative activities of plants.
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE:
 Phylogenetically parenchyma is a primitive tissue. It is the only tissue
developed among the lower plants.
 By its gradual specialization and elaboration other new tissues have evolved.
 It is universal in its distribution and is present in all parts and organs of a
plant.
 It is a soft tissue found in epidermis, cortex, pith, pericycle of stems and
roots and also in the mesophyll of leaves.
 It is present as the pulp of the fleshy fruits and also in the endosperm of the
seeds.
 Parenchyma also gets associated with the complex tissues like xylem and
phloem.
 Meristems themselves are composed of parenchyma cells.
 Thus, parenchyma forms the fundamental or ground tissue of plants.
STRUCTURE:

 The cells are isodiametric or

polyhedral in shape. But
mesophyll cells of leaves may be
columnar or variously lobed (eg.
Pinus- needles).
 The cell wall is uniformly thin
and composed of only cellulose;
sometimes thickened due to the
deposition of hemicellulose (eg.
Endosperm cells of seeds in date
palm)
 Cells may be either compactly arranged without any intercellular
space or bear large intercellular spaces (eg. Spongy parenchyma of leaf
mesophyll)
 A prominent nucleus is present, either at the centre or near the cell
wall.
 Cell contents are variable
and organelles like
chloroplasts, mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum and
ergastic substances like
starch grains, protein
granules, oil globules may be
present.
SPECIALIZED PARENCHYMA CELLS:
Based on cell structure and specialized function, parenchyma may be
classified into different categories:
PROSENCHYMA:
This parenchyma cells are thick walled, long with pointed ends. This
parenchyma forms the pericycle of roots. It provides support to plant
organ.
SIMPLE PARENCHYMA:
It forms the ground tissue of the plant organ and has all the characters
of the parenchyma cells (eg. Parenchyma of cortex and pith of stem and
root).
Due to the presence of active protoplasm in their cells simple
parenchyma becomes the seat of essential metabolic function like
respiration, secretion excretion and also storage of food materials.
STELLATE PARENCHYMA:
 The cells of this tissue are stellate (star shaped) and branched. Air
spaces are also present but' they are less developed. Main function of
this parenchyma is to provide mechanical support.
 It is found in the leaf bases of banana. It provide strength to leaf
bases. Leaf base of banana performs the function of stem. Rhizome is
found in banana.
CHLORENCHYMA:
This type of parenchyma in which abundant quantity of chloroplasts
are found. Two types of chloroplasts are present in dorsiventral leaves.
(a) Palisade tissues: Inter cellular spaces are absent. Their cells are
tightly fitted together.
They are present 'towards adaxial/ventral/upper side of leaf.
Number of chloroplasts are more in palisade tissue as compare to
spongy tissue. So upper surface of a leaf appears more green as
compared to lower surface.
(b) Spongy tissues: Large intercellular spaces are present. So they
facilitates transpiration and gaseous exchange. They are present
towards abaxial dorsal lower side of leaf.
AERENCHYMA:
 This parenchyma is made up of rounded cells. These cells surrounds
the large air chambers.
 Air-chambers are lysigenous in origin. (Oxygen is stored in these
chambers which are evolved from photosynthesis which help in
respiration). It is found in cortex region, It provide buoyancy to
hydrophyte plants. (eg. Hydrilla etc)
MUCILAGE PARENCHYMA:
In the mucilage parenchyma large vacuoles and mucilage will be found.
e.g. Succulent xerophytic plants. e.g. Aloe. The main function is storage
of water.
 FUNCTIONS OF PARENCHYMA:
1. Parenchyma is closely associated with vital physiological functions
like photosynthesis, assimilation, respiration etc.
2. Parenchyma functions as a storage tissue. Stem (eg. Potato) and root
(eg. Sweet potato) tubers are good examples. These store food
materials in the form of starch, proteins, oils and fats.
3. Parenchyma cells associated with xylem and phloem, participate in
the translocation of water and dissolved solutes.
4. In succulent or xerophytic plants such as Opuntia, Aloe etc.,
parenchyma stores water and mucilagenous substances in their fleshy
stem and leaves.
5. Chlorenchyma present in leafy cells contain chloroplasts and
photosynthetic in function.
6. Aerenchyma, with large air-spaces stores air to facilitate in gaseous
exchange and also helps to increase the buoyancy among floating
hydrophytes.
7. Parenchyma cells sometimes regain the power of cell division and
during emergency become meristematic in function (eg. Vegetative
propagation)
8. Parenchyma cells when compactly arranged may increase their
turgidity and provide strength and rigidity to the plant organs like
leaves and thus become mechanical in function.
COLLENCHYMA: (GK. Colla = thick wall, enchyma =
infusion)

 The term Collenchyma was coined by

SCHLEIDEN
 Collenchyma is a simple permanent living
mechanical tissue, composed of only one
type of cell elements
 In fact, collenchyma is a special type of
parenchyma differentiated from a common
meristem.
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE:
 Phylogenetically, collenchyma either originates from apical meristems or
from pro-cambium, jointly with vascular tissue.
 Collenchyma is not a universal tissue. It is found in the stems of herbaceous
dicots
 Collenchyma is absent in parts of woody plant parts, roots and
monocotyledons.
 Collenchyma forms the hypodermis of dicot stems. Cells of collenchyma are
flexible due to hydrophilic nature of pectocellulose so flexibility occurs in dicot
stems.
 Collenchyma is absent in plants after the secondary growth because plant
becomes woody. Chloroplast may be found in the cells of collenchyma. Lamina
margins of leaves also bears collenchyma:
 This protects the cracking of lamina margin due to the action of wind.
STRUCTURE:
 The cells appear somewhat elongated, polygonal or rectangular in
cross section with tapering or oblique ends
 The cell wall is unevenly thickened and
more thickened at the regions of angles
 In addition to cellulose the secondary cell
wall includes hemicellulose and pectin.
Lignin is completely absent.
 The cells are living and contain functional
nucleated, vacuolated protoplasts.
 Cells are usually compact without
intercellular spaces.
Types of Collenchyma:
On the basis of place of deposition/thickening of cell wall and
arrangement of cells, it is classified into three types by Majumdar:

Lamellar/plate collenchyma:
• The cells of collenchyma are
arranged in lamellar forms.
• The cell have thickening on the
tangential walls. Due to such type
of deposition, cell looks like a
lamellar or plates. Ex. Sunflower
stem.
Angular Collenchyma:
 This type of collenchyma is abundantly found in plants. The cells of
this tissue are angular.
 The deposition of pectocellulose are at the angles of cell. e.g., Stem of
Datura, Solanum and tomato.
Lacunar Collenchyma / Tubular Collenchyma:
 Large Intercellular spaces are present in the cells of this tissue.
Deposition of pectocellulose is on the wall of intercellular spaces.
 Intercellular spaces of collenchyma are thickened. e.g. Cucurbita
stem and aerial roots of Monstera.
FUNCTIONS OF COLLENCHYMA:
1. It functions as a primary mechanical tissue in young aerial parts of
dicot plants, particularly in petioles, pedicels and fruit stalks.
2. It provides protection to the vascular bundles of leaves forming
bundle sheath or cap.
3. Collechyma with chloroplasts perform photosynthetic function.
4. Like parenchyma, collenchyma also may reassume meristematic
activity which helps in functions like wound healing, development
of cork cambium etc.
5. Due to unequal thickening of cell walls, collenchyma imparts
considerable tensile strength with flexibility and plasticity. This
property give support and strength to the developing organs of the
plant.
SCLERENCHYMA (Gk; Scleros = Hard, enchyma = infusion)

Term was coined by METTENIUS

 Sclerenchyma, is a simple permanent tissue composed of hard,
dead cells and perfectly adapted for mechanical function.
 The sclerenchyma cells are thickened uniformly and often lignified.
 The individual cells of sclerenchyma do not possess living
protoplasts at maturity.
 Sclerenchyma cells show wide variations in form and structure, and
usually consist of two independent types:
(a) Fibres (originate from meristematic cells) and
(b) Sclereids (develop from parenchyma cells due to secondary
deposition of the wall material)
 FIBRES:
 Fibres are very long and narrow cells with
tapered and sometimes branched ends.
 The walls are uniformly thickened and highly
lignified
 The pits are small, round or slit-like in outline
 The cell lumen is small due to much thickening
of the secondary wall and may be continuous or
septate
 The ends may be blunt or branched with
interlocked arrangement
 The fibres are always dead at maturity
 They are angular in outline after cross section
 In certain cases the fibre walls are cellulosic and non-lignified
 Some fibres have mucilagenous walls.

DISTRIBUTION:
 In the leaflets of cycas they occur singly as IDIOBLASTS.
 They may occur in separate strands in the cortex or as bundle caps
associated with vascular bundles or in the xylem and the phloem as
wood and bast fibres.

Fibres are classified into two groups based on their positions in the
plant body
(a) Xylary fibres and
(b) Extraxylary fibres
XYLARY FIBRES:
 These are also known as intraxylary fibres or wood fibres
 These are an integral part of the xylem and originate from the same
meristematic tissue
 Xylary fibres show variations in their shape, size, wall thickness and
pitting pattern
 The pits are simple or bordered in nature
 These fibres possess lignified secondary walls
There are two main types of xylary fibres
(a) Libriform fibres and
(b) Fibre tracheids, based on the wall thickness type and amount of
pits
Libriform fibres: (Liber meaning “Inner
bark”)
 They resemble phloem fibres and are
usually longer than the tracheids
 Walls of these fibres are extremely thick
with reduced simple pits
 Sometimes the pit cannot become
elongated and the inner pit aperture
becomes sit-like
 The inner pit apertures of a pit pair are
usually at right angles to each other
 They are found in phloem, xylem,
pericycle and hypodermis
Tracheidal Fibres or Fibre Tracheids:
 These are intermediate b/w libriform fibres and tracheids
 Cell walls of the fibre-tracheids are of medium thickness with bordered pits
 The inner pit opening is slit-like. These str’s are regarded as reduced tracheids
 Like libriform fibres the fibre-tracheids may be septate (septate fibres)
 Gelatinous or mucilagenous fibre is observed in the secondary xylem of dicot
plants
 The innermost layer of the secondary wall of such fibres is made of β-cellulose
called G-Layer, which after absorbing water almost covers the entire cell lumen.
 This less compact and porous G-layer irreversibly shrinks on drying.
 Some elongated cells with thin secondary walls and living protoplasts occur in
the secondary xylem. These elongated cells are called “Substitute fibres”.
EXTRAXYLARY FIBRES:
 The fibres present anywhere in the plant body other than xylem
tissue are called “Extraxylary fibres” or “Bast Fibres”.
 They may remain distributed in the cortex, pericycle and phloem.
 These fibres are usually long with tapered, blunt or branched ends.
 The cell walls of these fibres are thick, lignified or non-lignified with
simple or slightly bordered pits
 Extraxylary fibres usually may form isolated strands or continuous
bands in the cortex and pericycle.
 They may remain as caps above the vascular bundles
 These fibres usually occur as patches in monocotyledonous leaves.
SEPTATE FIBRES:
 There are certain fibres termed “Septate fibres” which are found in the xylem
and the phloem.
 These fibres are characterized by the presence of partition walls (septa) and
protoplasts with plasmodesmatal connections.
 The septum consists of a middle
lamella and two primary wall-like
layers and does not fuse with the
fibre wall.
 These fibres may also store starch,
oil droplets, resins and calcium
oxalate.
 Secondary xylem of many dicots possess septate fibres. Non-vascular septate
fibres are found in some monocots.
COMMERCIAL FIBRES:
Commercially there are two types of fibres: Hard fibre and Soft fibre
 The hard fibres are stiff and lignified as found in the leaves of
Agave, Yucca, Musa textilis etc
 Soft fibres are extraxylary fibres. They are soft and flexible and may
be lignified or non-lignified as found in jute, hemp etc.
 The cotton fibres which are also known as “ Surface Fibres” as they
are produced from the testa of seeds.
According to their use, the fibres may be grouped as:
1. Textile fibre: used in the manufacture of cloths; e.g.., cotton, flax,
hemp etc
2. Cordage fibre: used in making different types of cords or ropes;
e.g.., juite, hemp etc
3. Brush fibres: used in the manufacture of brushes and brooms;
e.g.., Agave, fibres from the palmae and the inflorescences of
Sorghum vulgare etc
4. Filling fibres: used in stuffing furniture, mattresses, life-belts etc;
Ceiba pentandra, cotton jute etc
SCLEREIDS:
 Sclereids or sclerotic cells are non-prosenchymatous, isodiametric or irregular
in shape.
 They normally become dead at maturity
 They occur as hard masses of cells within soft parenchyma tissue in many
different places in the plant body and are much shorter than true fibres in length
 They are major components in the shell of walnuts and seed coats of pea and
many other plants.
 The sclereid walls possess
reniform simple pits with
branched canals.
 The hard and thick walls are
lignified and also may be
cutinised or suberised.
Types of Sclereids:
According to the shape, size and nature of wall thickening the sclereids
may be of following types:
Brachysclereids or Stone cells:
 These are more or less isodiametric in appearance
 They are also called as Stone cells or Grit cells as they give gritty
texture of the fruit flesh of many plants (eg. Pyrus, Psidium etc).
 They are usually found in the phloem, the cortex and the bark of
stems.
Macrosclereids:
 These are rod-shaped columnar sclereids.
 They often form a continuous palisade like epidermal layer in the
testa of seeds in Leguminosae.
 Macrosclereids also occur in the pulp of Malus sylvestris.
Osteosclereids:
 These are bone or spool shaped sclereids.
 They are also columnar in arrangement.
 The ends of these sclereids are enlarged, lobed or somewhat branched.
 Such sclereids are mainly found in seed coats (eg. Pisum and leaves of
certain dicots of Pisum etc).
Astrosclereids:
These are branched and often star-shaped, mainly found in leaves and
stems of many dicot plants like Thea, Nymphaea, Trichodendron etc.
Trichosclereids:
This type of sclereids are very elongated, hair-like, and always single
branched sclereids.
 Differences between sclereids and fibres
Sl No. Sclereids Fibres
1. Sclereids are developed from parenchyma These are developed from meristematic cells. The
cells due to secondary growth in thickness cell walls are lignified.
and lignin deposition on their walls

2. These are mostly isodiametric but may also Fibres are elongated with tapering ends, usually
show various shapes interlock with each other.
3. Depending on shapes, they are termed There is no major variation in shape which may be
brachy-, macro-, astro-, trichosclereids etc. septate or aseptate.
4. The sclereids have long pits with rounded Fibres have pits with slit-like pit aperture
pit aperture
5. Ramiform pits are present on Ramiform pits are absent on the fibre walls.
brachysclereids
6. Sclereids are found in fruits, barks, pith, Fibres are present in leaves, stems, roots and fruits,
cortex, mesophyll tissue, seed coat etc. and in cortex, pith, xylem and phloem, bundle caps,
rarely in association of xylem and phloem pericycle etc
7 Sclereids are responsible for mechanical Fibres give mechanical strength to the plant body.
rigidity and elasticity
Differences between parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma
Sl No. Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma
1. Parenchyma originate from Collenchyma originate from Sclerenchyma originates from
protoderm and ground procambium like cells in the protoderm, procambium and
meristem ground meristem ground meristem
2. Cells are living Cells are living Cells are dead
3. Cells are usually Cells are generally Cells are isodiametric (sclereids)
isodiametric but various elongated and elongated (fibres)
shapes are also found
4. The cell wall is thin, The cell walls are unevenly The cell walls are formed thick
uniformly thickened and thick with more thickenings and composed of lignin and other
cellulosic at the corners and substances.
composed of pectin and
other substances
5. The cell walls are primary The cell walls are primary The cell walls are formed
in nature without in nature with no secondarily with various
sculpturing sculpturing sculpturing like annular, spiral
reticulate etc.
 Cont..

6. The walls show Cells walls are usually Cell walls are elastic
plasticity plastic
7. There are primary pit Pits are rare on cell Simple and bordered pits
fields on the cell wall wall are present.
8. Parenchyma tissue Very less intercellular Intercellular spaces are
have extensive spaces are present absent and the ends of the
intercellular spaces with occasional fibres may be interlocked
interlocking ends
9. Parenchyma forms a It remains embedded It remains embedded in
ground to hold in parenchyma parenchyma
collenchyma and
sclerenchyma
10. The main function is Storage and It is mechanical tissue.
storage mechanical rigidity
are the main functions