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ATHIRA S KUMAR
2016-45-029
PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

1.Principle of Association
Learning is growth like and continuous
Learning is the result of our experiences.
Experiences that occur together tend to recur together
Previous learning always sets the stage of subsequent learning
2.Principle of Clarity
Learning is purposeful
Learning varies directly with the meaningfulness of the material presented
Learning is increased when the learner sees the end sought by the practic
3.Principle of self activity
Learning results through self activity
It is an active process on the part of the learner
Teachers can only set up the learning situation and stimulate a person to learn
The door to learning is locked on the inside and unless the learner opens the
door himself, learning cannot take place
Learning involves appropriate activities that engage maximum number of
senses
4.Principle of Readiness (Motivation) Principle of Rewards (Satisfaction)
Learning must be challenging and satisfying
Readiness includes social and intellectual maturity
When not ready to act, learner will be annoyed if made to act
A favourable attitude accelerates learning and a bad attitude retards
learning Consequently learning depends primarily upon satisfaction of wants
or needs, in other words, upon success rewards maintain and strengthen the
learning process
5.Principle of Practice (or Law of Exercise)
Learning must result in functional understand ing
Memorization is temporary unless reviewed or put to use in a practical situation
Practice leads to perfection
6.Principle of Disassociation
Learning is affected by emotions
The intensity of emotional feeling affects learning differently in different
individuals
The most effective way of eliminating an undesirable response is to set up a
desirable substitute
7.Principle of Timing
Learning takes place more readily when the facts or skills are given at the time
of just before the time they are to be used in a serviceable way
8.Principle of Environment
Learning is affected by the physical and social environment
THEORIES OF LEARNING

 In a broad sence these theories may be classified into two major

heads.They are,

1.BEHAVIOURISTIC THEORIES
2.COGNITIVE THEORIES
BEHAVIOURISTIC THEORIES

 Behaviouristic theories belong to the school of behaviorism.They interpret

learning in terms of association between stimulus and response.Under this
category we may include theories like,

A) Thorndike’s theory of trial and error learning

B)Guthrie’s contiguity theory of learning
C)Halt’s drive reduction theory of learning
D)classical and operant conditioning
COGNITIVE THEORIES

 Cognitive theories , on the other hand , belong to the school of Gestalt

psychology and cognitive psychology. In place of pure mechanical or
instrumental approach these theories emphasise the role of purpose ,
insight , understanding and other cognitive factors in the process of
learning.under this category ,the theories like ,
A) theory of Insightful learning
B)Lewin’s field theory of learning
C)Tolman’s sign learning etc.
1.TRIAL AND ERROR THEORY OF
LEARNING

 The famous psychologist Edward l.Thorndike(1874-1949)is known as the

propagator of the theory of trial and error learning.
 It is the result of his experiments performed on chickens,rats and cats.
 He put a hungry cat in a puzzle box.There was only one door for exit which
could be opened by correctly manipulating a latch.A fish was placed
outside the box .The smell of the fish worked as a strong motive for the
hungry cat to come out of the box.Consequently the cat made every
possible effort to come out.The situation is described by Thrndike himself as,

“It tries to squeeze through every opening ;it clows and bites at the bars or
wires , it thrusts its paws through any opening and claws at everything it
reaches”.
 In this way it made a number of random movements.In one of the random
movements by chance,the latch was manipulated.The cat come out and
got its reward.
 For another trial the process was repeated . The cat was kept hungry and
placed in the same puzzle box.The fish and its smell again worked as motive
for getting out of the box.It again made random movemets and frantic
efforts.But this time , it look less time in coming out.On subsequent trials such
incorrect responses,bitting,clawing and dashing were gradually diminished
and the cat look less time on every successful trail.In due course it was in a
position to manipulate the latch as soon as it was put in the box.In this way
gradually the cat earned the art of opening the door.
The experiment sums up the following stages in the
process of learning:

 1. Drive : (in the present experiment it was hunger which was

intensified with the sight of the food).
 2. Goal : To get the food by getting out of the box.
 3. Block : The cat was confined in the box with a closed door.
 4. Random movements: The cat, persistently, tried to get out of the box.
 5. Chance Success : As a result of this striving and random movement
the cat, by chance, succeeded in opening the door.
 6. Selection of proper movement): Gradually, the cat recognised the
correct manipulation of the latch. It selected the proper way of
manipulating the latch out of its random movements.
 7. Fixation : At last, the cat learned the proper way
of opening the door by eliminating all the incorrect responses and fixing
only the right responses. Now it was able to open the door opening the
door.
 Thorndike maintained that the learning is nothing but the stamping in of the
correct responses stamping out of the incorrect through trial and error.In
trying for the correct solution the cat made so many vein attempts.It
committed error after error before gaining success.On subsequent trials , it
tried to avoid the erroneous ways and repeat the correct way of
manipulating the latch. Thorndike called it “Learning by selecting and
connecting” and it provides an opportunity for the selection of the proper
responses and correct or associate them with adequate stimuli.
LAWS OF LEARNING ON THE BASIS OF THIS
THEORY

 1. The law of readiness :

This law is indicative of learners state to participate in the learning

process.Readiness according to Throndike is preparation for action.It is very
essential for learning.
Eg: If a child is ready to learn he learns more quickly ,effectively and with
greater satisfaction than if he is unwilling to learn.
 2. The Law of Effect
The law of effect means that the learning takes place properly when it
results in satisfaction and the learner derives pleasure out of it. In a situation
where the child meets with failure or gets no satisfaction, the progress on the
path of learning is blocked. All the pleasant experiences have a lasting
influence and are remembered for long time, while the unpleasant ones are
soon forgotten. Therefore, the satisfaction and dissatisfaction, pleasure or
displeasure obtained as a result of some learning ensure the degree of
effectiveness of that learning.
 3. The Law of Exercise:
 This law has two sub-parts-law of use
 and law of disuse:
 Law of use: "When a modifiable connection is made betweensituation and
response that connection's strength is, other things being equal ,increased.

 Law of disuse: "When a modifiable connection is not made be

 tween a situation and response, during a length of time, that connec
 tion's strength is decreased.'
PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS OF THORNDIKE’S
CONTRIBUTION IN THE FIELD OF LEARNING

 THORNDIKE’S theory of trial and error has enough educational

significance.It tries to explain the process of learning, carefully on the basis
of actual experiments performed.
 Let us take the discovery made by Archimedes in the form of his well-known
principle. He was confronted with problem given by his Emperor. There was
a Drive that he would be beheaded if he could not solve the problem.
There was a Block as He could not think of any solution. The problem was
difficult. He went on experimenting and made a number of attempts (trials)
for the solution of his problem. One day while taking his bath, he got
chance success in one of his attempts and this led to the formulation of the
law of floating bodies.
2.THEORY OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING.
 Ivan pavlov and Conditioning:
During one of his experiments he found that the experimental
dogs salivated not only upon actual eating but also when they saw the food,
noticed the man who usually bought it ,or even heard the foot steps of their
feeder.This phenomena is known as “conditioning”.
 In one of his experiments Pavlov kept a dog hungry for a few days and then
tied him on to the experimental table which was fitted with certain
mechanically controlled devices.The dog was made comfortable and
distracttions were excluded as far as it was possible to do.The observer kept
himself hidden from view of the dog but was able to view the experiment
by means of a set of mirrors.Arrangement was made to give food to the
dog through automatic devices.Everytime the food was presented to the
dog ,he also arranged for the ringing of a bell.When the food was
presented to the dog and the bell was rung, there was automatic
secretion of saliv afrom the mouth of the dog.The activity of presenting the
food accompanied with a ringing of the bell was repeated several times
and the amount of saliva secreted was measured.
 After several trials , the dog was given no food but the bell was rung.In this
case the amount of saliva secreted was recorded and measured . It was
found that even in the absence of food(The natural stimulus),the ringing of
the bell (an artificial stimulus) caused the dog to secrete the saliva(natural
response)
 The above experiment this, brings into the picture the four essential
elements of the conditioning process. The first element is natural stimulus,
technically known as unconditioned stimulus (US) i.e., food. It results in a
natural response known as unconditioned response (UR). This response
constitutes the second element. The third element is the artificial stimulus
like ringing of the bell which is technically known as Conditioned Stimulus
(CS).
 It is substituted in place of the natural stimulus (food). Initially the
conditioned stimulus does not evoke the desired response, i.e. conditioned
response (CR), the fourth element is the chain of the conditioning
process.However, as a result of conditioning, one learns to produce
behavior stimulus to form conditioned response as a reaction of
conditioned stimulus.
PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

 The theory of classical conditioning emphasized by Pavlov and Watson

gave birth to a number of important concepts and principles in the field of
learning as under:
1.Extinction:
It was noted by Pavlov that if the conditioned stimulus (ringing of the bell) is
presented alone a number of times without the food, the magnitude of the
conditioned response of salivation begins to decrease, and so does the
probability of its appearing at all. This process related with the gradual
disappearance of the conditioned response on disconnecting the S-R
association is called extinction.
2.Spontaneous Recovery
It was also discovered by Pavlov that after extinction, when a conditioned
response is no longer evident, the behaviour often appears again
spontaneously but at a lower strength.This phenomenon---the reappearance
of an apparently extinguished conditioned response (CR) after an interval in
which the pairing of conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US)
has not been repeated is called Spontaneous recovery. The process of
spontaneous recovery makes us believe that somehow the learning is
suppressed rather than forgotten. As time goes by, the suppression may
become so strong that there will, ultimately, be no more possibility of
spontaneous recovery.
3.Stimulus Generalization:
Pavlov's dog provided conditioned response (Salivation) not the sight of the
food but to every stimulus like ringing of the bell appearance of light, sound of
the footsteps of the feeder, etc. associated with its getting of the food.
Similarly,Responding to the stimuli in such generalized way was named as
stimulus generalization referring to particular state of learning behaviour in
which an individual once conditioned to respond to a specific stimulus is
made to respond in the same way in response to other stimuli of similar nature.
4.Stimulus discrimination:
Stimulus discrimination is the opposite of stimulus generalization. Here in sharp
contrast to response in a usual fashion the subject learns to react differently in
different situations. For example, the dog may be made to salivate only at the
sight of the green light and not at the red or others. Going further, the
salivation might be elicited at the sight of particular intensity or brightness of
the green light but not the other. In this way, through the mechanism of
stimulus discrimination, conditioning may help us in learning to react only to
single specific stimulus out of the multiplicity of stimuli and enabling us to
distinguish and discriminate among a variety of stimuli present in our
environment.
Implications of classical conditioning

 In our day-to-day life, we are usually exposed to simple classica!

conditioning. Fear, love and hatred towards an object, phenomenon or
event are created through conditioning. A father who, after returning
home from his office, always rebukes and punishes his child without caring
to know the basic reasons may condition his child to fear him, or develop
anxiety reactions at the time of his returning home. The child may further
develop a feeling of hatred towards his father or even a lot of discontent
and hostile attitude towards his home. Similarly, a teacher with his defective
methods of teaching or improper behaviour may condition a child to
develop a distaste hatred towards him, his subject and even the school
environment. On the contrary, affection, a loving attitude and sympathetic
treatment given to the child by the parents at home or by the teachers at
school may bring a desirable impact on him through the process of
conditioning.
3.OPERANT CONDITIONING

 Although classified and included in the category of conditioning,operant

conditioning differs a lot from the classical conditioning advocated by
Pavlov and Watson. The most outstanding difference lies in the order
related with the initiation and response i.e., stimulus response mechanism.
In classical conditioning the organism is passive. It must wait for something
to happen for responding. The presence of stimulus for evoking a response
is essential. The behaviour cannot be emitted in the absence of a cause.
The child expresses fear only when he hears a loud noise, the dog waits for
food to arrive before salivating. In each of such instances, the subject has
no control over the happening. He is made to behave in response to the
stimulus situations. Thus, the behaviour is said to be initiated by the
environment, the organism simply responds.
 Skinner revolted against "no stimulus, no response" mechanism in the
evolution of behaviour. He argued that in practical situations in our life, we
cannot always wait for things to happen in the environment. Man is not a
victim of the environment. He may often manipulate the things in the
environment with his own initiative. Therefore, it is not always essential that
there must be some known stimuli or cause for evoking a response. Quite
often, most of our responses could not be attributed to the known stimuli.
The organism itself initiates the behaviour. A dog, a child, or an individual
"does“ something, "behaves" in some manner, it "operates" on the
environment and in turn the environment responds to the activity. How the
environment responds to the activity, rewarding or not, largely determines
whether the behaviour will be repeated, maintained or avoided.
Implications of the theory of operant
conditioning

 A response or behaviour is not necessarily dependent (contincent) upon a

specific known stimuli. It is more correct to think the behaviour or response is
dependent upon its consequences. Therefore, for training an organism to
learn a particular behaviour of response, he may be initiated to respond in
such a way as to produce the reinforcing stimulus. His behaviour should get
the reward and in turn he should again act in such a way that he is
rewarded and so on. Therefore, the learning or training process and
environment must be so designed as to create minimum frustration and
maximum satisfaction to a learner to provide him proper reinforcement for
the desired training or learning.
 4.THEORY OF INSIGHTFUL LEARNING

 The views propagated by behaviourists in the form of an associaton

between stimuli and responses for understanding learning faced great
difficulty in explaining the learning process or behaviour involving higher
cognitive abilities. The chance succes through trial error or association
through connectionism and conditioning may for simple acquisition of
knowledge, skills, interests habits and other personality characteristics, but it
is absolutely insufficient to account for problem solving, creativity and
acquisition of other cognitive behaviour including insight.
 These experiments show learning by insight. Some of theme given below:
 (i) In one experiment, Kohler put the chimpanzee, Sultan Inside a cage and a
banana was hung from the root of the cage.A box was placed inside the cage.The
chimpanzee tried to reach at the banana by jumping but could not
succeed.Suddenly, he got an idea and used the box as a jumping platform by
placing it just below the hanging banana.
 (ii) In another experiment, Kohler made this problem more difficult. Now it required
two or three boxes to reach the bananas. Moreover, the placing of one box over the
other required different specific arrangements.
 (iii) In a more complicated experiment, the banana was placed outside the cage of
the chimpanzee. Two sticks, one longer than the other, were placed inside the cage.
One was hollow at one end so that the other stick could be thrust into it to form a
longer stick. The banana was so kept that it could not be picked up by any one of
the sticks. The chimpanzee first tried these sticks one after the other but failed.
Suddenly, he got a bright idea. The animal joined the two sticks together and
reached the banana. In these experiments, Kohler used many different
chimpanzees. Sultan, who was the most intelligent of Kohler's chimpanzees, could
only when they saw Sultan solving them.
Implications of the theory of insightful
learning

 The greatest contribution of the theory of insightful learning lies in the fact
that it has made learning as a purposeful and goal-oriented task. It does
not involve simple reflexive or automatic machine type responses. The
learner has to be motivated by arousing his interest and curiosity in the
learning process and he must be well acquainted with the specific aims
and purposes of his learning.
References:

 An intoduction to sociology
 Vidhyabhusan(1990)
 Dr sachdeva
 Kitab mahal, allahabad

 General Psychology
 S k Mangal(1988)
 aterling publishers pvt.Ltd,New dellhi

 Rural sociology in India

 Desai A R(1990)
 Popular Prakasham,Bombay.
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