INTRODUCTION TO

THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics
Therme Dynamics
(Heat) + = Thermodynamics
(power)
• The science that deals with the conversion of energy from one form
to another, the direction of the flow of heat, and the availability of
energy to do work.
First Law of Thermodynamics
• The first law of thermodynamics is simply an expression of the
conservation of energy principle, and it asserts that energy is a
thermodynamic property.

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡
Second Law of Thermodynamics
• The second law of thermodynamics asserts that the quality as well as
quantity, and the actual processes occur in the direction of decreasing
quality of energy.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
• If two closed system with different temperatures are brought
together in thermal contact with a third system, the heat will flow
from the system with a high temperature to the system with low
temperature until the bodies reach thermal equilibrium with each
other.

𝑇𝐵1 = 𝑇𝐵2 = 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 > 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚

The working substance
• A fluid is a substance that exists, or is regarded as existing, as a
continuum characterized by low resistance to flow and the tendency
to assume the shape of its container.
• Example of fluid working substances are:
• Steam in a steam turbine
• Air in an air compressor
• Air-fuel mixture in an internal combustion engine
• Water in a hydraulic turbine
The working substance
• A substance is something that usually is made up of molecules.

• A pure substance is one that is homogeneous in composition and

invariable in chemical aggregation.

• A simple substance is one whose state is defined by two

independently variable intensive thermodynamic properties.
The system
• A system is a region enclosed by specified boundaries, which may be
imaginary, either fixed or moving.
• The region all about the system is called the surroundings or
environment.
• A system may be defined in three kinds:
• Open system – there is a flow of mass in the surrounding.
• Closed system – there is no flow of mass; there is a flow of energy.
• Isolated system – completely impervious of its surrounding.
The system
System of units
• SI Base Units
Quantity Unit Name Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time Second S
Thermodynamic Temp. Kelvin K
Amount of matter Mole mol
System of units
• SI Derived Units
Quantity Unit Name Unit Symbol
Area square meter 𝑚2
Volume cubic meter 𝑚3
Speed, velocity meter per second m/s
Acceleration meter per second squared 𝑚/𝑠 2
Density kilogram per cubic meter 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Specific volume cubic meter per kilogram 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔
System of units
• SI Derived Units
Quantity Unit Name Unit Symbol Exp. In other
unit
Force Newton N -
Pressure Pascal Pa 𝑁/𝑚2
Energy, work, Joule J N·m
heat
Power Watt 𝑊 J/s
Density kilogram per 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
cubic meter
Specific cubic meter 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔
volume per kilogram
Temperature
• The degree of hotness or coldness of a thermodynamic substance
with reference to standard value. Thermometer is the instrument
used to measure temperature.
Temperature
• Arbitrary scale, t:

• Centigrade or Celsius (℃) – on this scale, the boiling point of water at

standard atmospheric pressure is 100℃ and the freezing point is 0℃.

• Fahrenheit (℉) – on this scale, the boiling pt. of water at standard

atmospheric pressure is 212℉ and the freezing pt. is 32℉

• Conversion:
5 ℃ ℉ −32
℃= (℉ - 32) =
9 100 180
Temperature
• Absolute Temperature, T:

• Kelvin (K) = ℃ + 273

• Rankine (°𝑅) = ℉ + 460

Pressure, P
• The absolute pressure is the true pressure measured above a perfect
vacuum
• The gage pressure is the pressure measured from the level of
atmospheric pressure recording instrument
• The atmospheric pressure is the pressure caused by the weight of the
atmosphere
Pressure, p
Pressure, p
Where: Patm = atmospheric pressure
= 101.325 kPa
= 14.7 psi
= 1. 032 kg/cm2
= 29.92 in Hg
= 760 mm Hg
= 760 torr
= 1.013 bar = 1 bar
= 1.013 x 10^6 dyne/cm2
negative (-) when the pressure is vacuum; the pressure in perfect vacuum is -101.325 kPa
Density, 𝜌
• Density is the mas per unit volume

𝑚
𝜌=
𝑣

m= mass (kg, g, lb)

v= volume (m3, cm3, ft3 )
𝜌 = (kg/m3 , lb/ft3 )
Specific weight, 𝜸
• Specific weight is the weight per unit volume.

𝑊
𝛾=
𝑣
W= weight kN , g, lbf
v= volume (m3, cm3, ft3 )

𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
g = 9.81 m/s2
Specific volume, 𝜐
• Specific Volume is the volume per unit mass.

𝑣 1
𝜐= =
𝑚 𝜌
Specific gravity, SG/RD
• Specific Gravity is also known as relative density.
• It is the ratio of the density of a certain gas to the density air at the
same term
𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
Sample Problem
An astronaut weighs 850N on the surface of the earth where g is 9.806
𝑚/𝑠 2 . What is the mass of the astronaut? What is his mass on the
surface of the moon, where g is one-sixth of earth’s gravity?
Sample Problem
The mass of a kite is .102 kg. What is the force due to gravity acting on
the kite?
Sample Problem
The weight of 1 litre of gasoline is 7.0 N. Determine its density.
Sample Problem
A horizontal pipe (100 mm diameter and 7m long) transports sea water.
Find the weight of the fluid in the pipe. The specific gravity of sea water
is 1.03.
Sample Problem
A rigid vessel having a volume of 1.5𝑚3 initially holds 5 kg of air under
high pressure. If 10% of the mass of air leaks out what is the final
density and specific volume of the air vessel?
Sample Problem
The average energy consumption is about 200 MJ per person per day.
For a world population of 5 billion people, what is the equivalent total
annual energy consumption in barrels of crude oil? The energy content
of 1 barrel of crude oil is 5.8 × 108 𝑘𝐽
Sample Problem
The specific weight of an object is 3.5 kN/m3. Determine the following:
a. Density
b. Mass if the dimensions of the object are
6cm x 15cm x 8cm
c. Specific Volume
d. Specific Gravity
First Law of Thermodynamics
• The first law of thermodynamics is simply an expression of the
conservation of energy principle, and it asserts that energy is a
thermodynamic property.

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡
Energy
• Without energy, there can be no work of heat flow that can happen.

• Work and heat flow are means of which we can transfer or transform
energies from one form to another.
Forms of energy
• Potential energy (PE)
• Kinetic energy (KE)
• Internal energy (U)
• Flow work / flow energy (𝑊𝐹 )
Potential energy (PE)
• Potential energy is the energy possessed by a body by the virtue of its
position.
• According to Sir Isaac Newton there is a gravitational attractive force
between all bodies and that magnitude of this force depend on the
mass of each body and the distance between them

𝑃𝐸 = 𝐹𝑔
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
Kinetic energy (KE)
• Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by the body by the virtue of its
motion.
• It is the energy that is required to accelerate a body from rest at any
given velocity.

KE = ½ mv2
KE = ½ m(v22-v12)
Internal energy, U
• Internal energy is the energy stored in a system in the microscopic
scale.
• It is associated with the random movement of molecules in a body.
• As the temperature increases, the internal energy increases.

Δ𝑈 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1
𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉
Sample Problem
What is the PE of a mass of 10 kg suspended 2m above the floor of the
laboratory?
Flow work, 𝑾𝒇
• Flow work / flow energy (wf) is the work done by pushing a fluid
across a boundary, usually into or out of the system

𝑾𝒇 = 𝑭𝑳 = 𝑷𝑨𝑳
𝑾𝒇 = 𝑷𝑽
𝑾𝒇𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑾𝒇𝟐 – 𝑾𝒇𝟐 = 𝑷𝟐𝑽𝟐 – 𝑷𝟏𝑽𝟏
Work, W
• Work is the product of force and distance.

𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑
Power,
• Power is the measure of the rate of doing work or converting energy work per unit time.

𝑊 𝐹𝑑
𝑃 = = = 𝐹𝑉
𝑡 𝑡
𝑇𝜔
𝑃 = = 𝜃𝑇
𝑡
𝑇 = 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒
𝜔 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑠𝑒𝑐
First Law of Thermodynamics
• The first law of thermodynamics is simply an expression of the
conservation of energy principle, and it asserts that energy is a
thermodynamic property.

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡
Heat and work
• Energies are transformed or transferred in two ways – by heat or
work.
Heat energy, Q
• Heat energy or thermal energy is the transfer of energy between two
bodies because of its temperature difference.

𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶 𝑡𝑓 – 𝑡𝑖

*heat will continue to flow as long as there is temperature difference.

*energy transfer through heat flows always moves from high
temperature to low temperature.
Entropy, S
• Entropy is defined as a measure of the amount of energy that is
unavailable to do useful work in a closed system undergoing a change
of state.
• It also describes the microscopic disorder or degree of randomness of
molecules in a closed thermodynamic system.
• Sensible heat is the heat needed to increase the temperature of a body
without changing its phase. 𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚𝐶Δ𝑇
• Latent heat is the heat needed by the body to change its phase without
changing its temperature. 𝑄𝐿 = 𝑚𝐿
𝐵𝑇𝑈 𝐾𝐽
• 𝐿𝑓 = 144 = 344
𝐿𝑏 𝑘𝑔
𝐵𝑇𝑈 𝐾𝐽
• 𝐿𝑣 = 970 = 2257
𝐿𝑏 𝑘𝑔
Enthalpy, H
ENTHALPHY
- composite property applicable to all fluids
H = U + pV
H = mCp( t2-t1)

where: Cp=specific heat capacity at const. pressure

Cp air = 1.005 kJ/kg.K or 0.24 BTU/lb.R
Cp water = 4.187 kJ/kg.K or 1.0 BTU/lb.R
Sample Problem
A motor vehicle weighing 19,620 N travelling at 72 km/hr what is the
kinetic energy of the vehicle?
Sample Problem
Convert the following readings of pressure to KPa
a. 8 bar
b. 10 atm
c. 2 MPa
d. 1,500 mm Hg
Sample Problem
Three kilograms of dry hydrogen occupy 33 m3. What is the density of
the hydrogen?
Sample Problem
A fluid in a cylinder is at a pressure of 700 kN/m2. It is expanded at a
constant pressure from a volume of 0.28m3. Determine the work
done.
Sample Problem
A 30 m high vertical column of a fluid of density 1878 kg/m3 exist in a
place where g=9.65 m/s2. What is the pressure at the base of the
column?
Sample Problem
If ice has a density of 0.92 kg/m3, then what is the volume of 5000g of
ice?
Sample Problem
Steam at a pressure of 48 kPa at 167K has a specific volume of 0.40
m3/kg and a specific enthalpy of 29 kJ/kg. Find the internal energy per
kilogram of steam.
Sample Problem
A steam condenser receives 10 kg/s of steam with an h1=2570 kJ/kg.
Steam condenses into liquid and leaves with an h2=160 kJ/kg. Cooling
water passes through the condenser with temperature increases from
13OC to 24OC. Calculate the cooling water flow rate in kg/s
Sample Problem
Two liquids of different densities (1=1500kg/m3 , 2=500kg/m3) are
poured together into a 100L tank, filling it. If the resulting density of
the mixture is 800kg/m3, find the respective quantities of liquid used.
Also find the weight of the mixture.
Sample Problem
A closed vessel contains air at pressure of 160 kN/m2 gauge and
temperature of 30OC, the air is heated at constant volume to 60OC
with the atmospheric pressure of 759 mm Hg. What is the final gauge
pressure?
Sample Problem
What is the temperature in OC of 2L of H2O at 30OC after 2.09 kJ of heat
have been added?
Sample Problem
Determine the average Cp (kJ/kg.K) of gas if 522kJ of heat is necessary
to raise the temperature from 300K to 800K making the pressure
constant.
Sample Problem
Determine the force required to produce an acceleration of 0.30 m/s2
on a 0.05kgm.
Sample Problem
What pressure is column of water 100 cm high equivalent to?
Sample Problem
If 10 lb of water evaporated at atmospheric pressure until a volume of
288.5 ft3 is occupied, how much work is done?
Sample Problem
A pressure gage registers 50 psig in a region where there barometer is
14.25 psiatm. Find the absolute pressure in psiabs
Sample Problem
A condenser vacuum gauge reads 715 mm Hg when the barometer
stands at 757 mm Hg. What is the absolute pressure in the condenser
in kPa.
Sample Problem
Oil flows full bore at velocity of 2m/s through a nest of 16 tubes in a
single pass cooler. The internal diameter of the tubes is 30 mm and
the density of the oil is 0.85 g/L. Find the volume flow rate in L/s
Sample Problem
A piston cylinder assembly contains 0.25 kg of air with an internal
energy of 30 kJ/kg. It is compressed to a higher pressure and the final
internal energy is 70 kJ/kg. During compression there is a heat loss of
2000J. Determine the work input needed for compression.
Sample Problem
In an experimental set-up, 5kg of salt solution is heated in a glass vessel
by a gas burner. An electric stirrer is used to ensure uniform heating
of the solutions. The internal energy of the solution is to be increase
from 200 kJ/kg in 15 min. The power consumption of the stirrer is
30W. The rate of heat loss from the vessel is 50W. Determine the
power of the gas burner required.
Sample Problem
Steam enters turbine stage with an enthalpy of 3628 kJ/kg at 70 m/s
and leaves the same stage with an enthalpy of 2846 kJ/kg and a
velocity of 124 m/s. Calculate the work done by the steam.
Sample Problem
A pump discharges a liquid into a drum at the rate of 0.032m3/s. The
drum is 1.5m in diameter and 4.2m in length, can hold 3000kg of the
liquid. Find the density of the liquid and the mass flow rate of the
liquid handled by the pump.