Module 9

ORGAN SYSTEM
PATHWAYS
 The Ten Major Organ Systems

Body covering or integument – protection from

the environment
Skeletal system – support (and protection) of
the body
Muscular system – movement and locomotion
Digestive system – reception and preparation
of food
Circulatory system – transport of materials
Respiratory system – exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide
The Ten Major Organ Systems

Excretory system – disposal of organic

wastes and excess fluid
Endocrine glands or system – regulation of
internal processes and adjustments to
exterior environment
Nervous System (and sense organs) –
regulation of internal processes and
adjustments to exterior environment.
Reproductive system – production of new
individuals.
 Integumentary System
 Include the skin and its modifications or
derivatives.
 Integument:
 It serves mainly for protection and covering
 Other functions include:
a. Sensation - contains millions of nerve endings.
b. body temperature regulation – sweat produced
by sweat glands evaporates to cool the skin when
it is hot. Blood vessels also expand so that more
blood comes near the surface, releasing heat to
make the body cooler. If body is cold, blood
vessels contract to conserve heat.
c. Excretion – sweat also contains extra salt
and water as released through perspiration.
d. synthesize Vitamin D- skin contains
cholesterol which can be converted by
sunlight into vit. D, necessary for mineral
absorption and bone development.
 The first line of defense against pathogens-
skin protects the body from microorganisms
causing infection and disease.
 Substances produced by the skin such as
pigments also protects the body from
harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun.
Integumentary System

 It is composed of the outer, thinner layer

called the epidermis, and the inner thicker
layer called the dermis.
 Beneath the two major layers is the
hypodermis or subcutaneous layer, made
up chiefly of adipose tissue or fat cells.
Invertebrate Integument:
Protozoans
 Covered by cell membrane.

 Paramecium is covered with a firm elastic

pellicle.
 Worms and arthropods secretes an external,
non cellular cuticle as additional covering.
 Snails secretes an exoskeleton of shell.

 Arthropods’ cuticle is toughened by chitin, a

carbohydrate which is water proof by a waxy
non chitinous outer layer of lipoprotein,
cuticulin.
 Insects there is sclerotization which is
the formation of a highly resistant
and insoluble protein, sclerotin.
 Molting –outer portion of the skin is
shed, the new cuticle is thickened and
calcified or sclerotized.
Vertebrate Integument:
 Made up of epidermis derived from
ectoderm and an inner thicker
dermis derived from the mesoderm.
 Epidermis gives rise to derivatives
such
a. Hair c.Claws
b. Feather d. Scales
c. Nail f. hooves
Dermis gives rise to :
a. Fish scales

b. Antlers of deer

Dermis contains:
a. blood vessels e. fat cells
b. Collagenous fibers f. fibroblasts
c. Nerves
d. Pigment cells
 Keratin – a tough fibrous protein
accumulates in the interior of the cells.
 All metabolically active cytoplasm is replaced
gradually by keratin. Cell dies and eventually
shed.
 Process is called keratinization and the
transformed is said to be cornified.
 Stratum corneum is consists of cornified
cells which are highly resistant to abrasion
and water diffusion.
 Areas exposed to pressure or friction such as
calluses in human palms and soles have
thick epidermal layer.
Scales – embedded in the dermis.
 Kinds of fish scales:
a. placoid- sharks

b. Cycloid- bagus, tilapia

c. Ctenoid – ayungin

d. Ganoid - garpike

Birds:
 Covered by feathers
Mammals:
 Covered with hair.
 Hair and feathers are nonliving
cornified products of the epidermis
that:
a. conserve body heat,
b. protect against abrasion,
c. smooth contours and
d. provide streamlining.
 Sweat glands in humans cools the body.
 Sebaceous glands- secretes a fatty, oily
substance that keeps the skin and hair
pliable.
 Subcutaneous fats in seals and whales
insulate the body and keep it warm.
 Pigment is scattered throughout the skin
and is concentrated in the epidermis.
 Human skin has scanty hair which suggests
that man originated in a warm environment.
 Chromatophores- special pigment scattered
through the layers of the epidermis in
mammals.
 Melanin – a group of black and brown
pigments.
 Melanophores – melanin deposited in
growing hair giving colors to mammals.
 Xanthophores - causes yellow and red
colors.
 Iridiophores – contain crystals of guanine
and other purine. With silvery or metallic
effect.
 Skin derivatives:
1. Glands

2. Hair

3. Feathers

4. Scales

5. Claws

6. Nails

7. Horns

8. Antlers
 kinds of Horns:
1.True horns – found in ruminants; consists of
hollow sheaths of hardened epidermis which
fit over a core of bone arising from the skull.
Found in both sexes.
2. Antlers – entirely bone in the mature
condition but during the growth period have a
covering of a vascular hairy epidermis which
is velvet; gradually worn away. Shed
annually. Restricted to males.
All claws, nails and hoofs are keratinized
epidermal structures.
 Claw – shaped to cover the sides, top and tip
of a terminal point.
 Nail – flattened and covers the dorsal surface
of the distal phalange
 Hoof – extends across the end of the digit
and covers the plantar surface.
 In the horse, the hoof is
developed from the claw of one
toe, is the only part of the foot
touching the ground.
 Others have spongy pads or other
parts of the foot on which to walk.
The Epidermis

 The epidermis has an outer layer of dead

cells (stratum corneum), and an inner layer
of epithelial and dividing cells (statum
germinativum).
 Melanocytes are cells which produce the
pigment cells called melanin.
 It has no blood vessels and nerves.
The Dermis

 Consist of a delicate layer of fine fibers

supporting the epidermis and reticular layer,
which consists of a dense network of coarse
and elastic fibers.
 It also consist of hair follicle, sebaceous and
sweat glands, blood vessels, and nerve
endings.
Cross section of the skin
SKELETAL
SYSTEM
This is composed of:
1. Bones

2. Joints – where two bones meet

3. Connective tissues – hold the bone

together.
The Skeletal System - The main
framework of the body.
Functions:
 Protects delicate organs such as the brain,
heart, and lungs.
 Provide attachments for muscles, hence
aid in bodily movements.
 Manufacture blood cells- bone marrow

 Store mineral salts, calcium, and

phosphate.
Skeletal System
Two types of skeletal
system:
 Exoskeleton-
located outside the
body
 Endoskeleton-
found inside the
body
Two main divisions:
1. Axial
2. Appendicular
The Axial Skeleton- bones which are
found near or at the main axis of the body
 Skull or cranium
 Vertebral column which is divided
into:
a. cervical (neck),
b. thoracic (chest),
c. lumbar (lower back),
d. sacrum (fused bones), and
e. caudal (tail vertebrae or coccyx in
man).
 Ribs: 12 pairs include 7 true ribs, 3
false ribs, and 2 floating ribs.
 Sternum or breastbone

 Mandible

 Thoracic basket or thoracic cage-

which contains lungs, heart and the
liver.
The thoracic basket
The Appendicular Skeleton- two girdles
with the limbs attached to them

 The bones of the pectoral girdle:

a. scapulae or shoulder blades and
b. the clavicle or collar bones.
 The bones of the upper limbs/forelimbs:
a. humerus (upper arm bone),
b. radius and ulna (lower arm bones),
c. carpals (wrist bones),
d. metacarpals (palm bones), and
e. phalanges or bones of the digits or fingers.
The Appendicular Skeleton

 The bones of the pelvic girdle:

a. ilium,
b. ischium, and
c. pubis.
 The bones of the hindlimbs or lower appendages
include:
a. femur (thigh bone),
b. tibia and fibula (shank or leg bones),
c. tarsals (ankle bones),
d. metatarsals (feet or sole bones), and
e. phalanges (toe bones).
Skeletal System
 Joints
Kinds of Joints:
1. Freely movable (diarthroses) joints such as
hinge joints and ball-and-socket joints.
2. Slightly movable (amphiarthroses) joints
such as the pubic symphysis.
3. Immovable ( synarthroses) joints such as
joints in the roof of the skull
 Tendons – connect muscles with bones
 Ligaments – connect bone to another
bone.
Kinds of Freely Movable Joints;
1. Ball and Socket joint – acetabulum and
head of femur; glenoid fossa and the head
of the humerus.
2. Hinge joint – knee and the elbow

3. Gliding joint - found at the wrist

4. Pivot joint – one that attaches the two bones

of the forearm at the elbow, enables bones
to rotate around each other.
Bone Structure:

Periosteum – membrane that covers the bone

where small blood vessels branch out.Bollod
moving through these vessels carries
nutrients to the bone and takes away wastes.
Spongy bone – has many spaces and is found
in the ends of long bones and in the middle
spaces.
Compact bone – with few spaces and is dense
which provides support in long bones as in
humerus and femur.
Red Bone Marrow – material that produces
blood cells.
Yellow bone marrow – mostly of fat cells often
found in the cavities within shafts of long
bones.
Haversian canal- circular channels through
which nerves and blood vessels.
Osteoblasts – make the new bone cells
needed for growth and repair.
Fetal skeleton is mostly of cartilage, a tough ,
flexible connective tissue, which is mostly
replaced by bone at the same time the baby
is born.
As the baby grows, most of the remaining
cartilage is replaced by harder bones.
Bone replaces cartilage until a person is 25
years old.
Cartilage in the ears, tip of the nose, and the
cushions of the vertebrae of the spine
persists throughout life.
Injuries and Disorders:
1. Sprained ankle- joint is twisted and the
ligaments and tendons are injured.
2. Bursitis – results when an injury causes too
much fluid to move into the bursae ( fluid-
filled sacs in joints). Joints swell and tender.
3. Arthritis - disease of joints to become
inflamed and painful.
4. Broken bone and fractures- results from
accidents.
Bones heal over time with proper medical
attention cause periosteum produces new
bone cells.
MUSCULAR
SYSTEM
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Main Function: movement and locomotion.
1. Move the skeletal muscles

2. Keep the heart beating

3. Enable internal organs to do their work.

 Skeletal muscles – attached to bones

Parts of the muscle:
1.origin- part which is immovable
2. insertion- movable part
3. Belly- fleshy part of the muscle
 Functions or actions of muscles: responsible for
the different movements produced.
 Action of muscles:
1. work together (synergism) or

2. work against each other (antagonism)

Three types of muscles:

1. Skeletal – attached to bones

2. Smooth – involuntary muscle of the internal

organs.
3. Cardiac - muscles of the heart
Two types of Muscle action:
1. Voluntary – under conscious control.
2. Involuntary – not under conscious control.
Skeletal Muscles
 Attached to the bones.
 Voluntary
 With striations.
 Do not undergo cytokinesis after mitosis- nucleus
divides but the cell does not.
 Long fibers with many nuclei.
 More mitochondria.
 Contraction moves apart of the skeleton to which it
is attached.
Smooth Muscles –
 Involuntary muscles of internal organs.

 Not under conscious control.

 Controlled partly by the nervous system and

partly by the hormones of the endocrine
system.
 Each muscle cell contains one nucleus and is
not striated.
 Found in the intestine, stomach and blood
vessels
Cardiac Muscles
 Striated and voluntary

 Works slowly and constantly without

stimulation from the nervous system although
nervous system can affect the heartbeat.
 Structure of a muscle fiber
 Sarcolemma, sarcoplasm, and nuclei.
 Myofibrils – individual contractile units
 Fine structures of the myofibrils: light bands (I
bands), and dark bands (A bands)
 Sarcomere – the functional unit of a myofibril.
 Myofilaments – much smaller parallel units of the
myofibril.
 Two kinds of myofilaments: actin and myosin.
DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

 Complex series of organs and glands that

processes food to make them simple and
absorbable by our cells.
 Involves processes such as:
1. Ingestion
2. Mastication
3. Digestion
4. Absorption
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

5. Circulation
6. Assimilation
7. Oxidation
8. Excretion
9. Egestion
 Components of the Digestive System

1. Accessory parts
2. Digestive glands
3. Digestive tube or
alimentary canal
The Accessory Parts of Digestive System

1. Lips
2. Teeth
3. Tongue
 The Digestive Tube
1. Mouth – the anterior
opening of the
digestive tube for the
entrance of food.

2. Oral Cavity – the

space internal to the
mouth where
mastication or grinding
of food takes place.
The Digestive Tube

3. Pharynx – the most posterior portion of

the oral cavity where it serves a dual
function: for passage of air into the glottis,
and for the passage of food into the
esophagus.
4. Esophagus – the tube which connects
the pharynx with the stomach. It serves for
the passage of food with a peristaltic
movement.
Diagrammatic illustration of motor events
of swallowing reflex.
The Digestive Tube

4. Stomach – J-shaped hollow

muscular organ.
- Highly acidic
- Partial digestion takes place.
- Parts include: fundus, cardiac end,
pyloric end, rugae, greater curvature,
lesser curvature
The Digestive Tube

- Chyme
- Churning
- Pyloric and
esophageal
sphincter
- Pepsin digests
protein
- Gastric acid,
mostly HCl
The Digestive Tube

5. Small intestines –
divided into 3
regions:
duodenum,
jejunum, and the
ileum.
The Digestive Tube

5. Small intestine – it is about 6 meters

long.
- villi, lined with columnar epithelium
- final digestion and absorption of fats,
proteins, and carbohydrates takes place
- substances secreted into and by the small
intestines include bile, pancreatic juice,
intestinal juice which contain enzymes.
 The Digestive Tube
6. Large intestine – portion which
extends from the ileum to the anus.
- also called colon.
- it is divided into ascending colon,
transverse, and descending colon,
sigmoid colon, and rectum.
- receives approximately 10 liters of water per
day. 1.5 liters is from food and 8.5 liters is
from secretions into the gut. 95% of this
water is reabsorbed.
The Digestive Tube
The Digestive Tube

7. Anus – the posterior opening of the

digestive tube.
- it serves for the exit of waste products of
digestion.
 The Digestive Glands
1. Salivary Glands –
 parotid glands produce
a serous, watery
secretion
 submaxillary
(mandibular) glands
produce a mixed serous
and mucous secretion
 sublingual glands
secrete a saliva that is
predominantly mucous in
character
The Digestive Glands

2. Liver
- the largest gland in the human body.

- It produces bile, a substance which

emulsifies fats.
- plays a major role in metabolism and has a
number of functions in the body, including
glycogen storage, decomposition of red blood
cells, plasma protein synthesis, and
detoxification.
The Digestive Glands

 The liver
 The Digestive Glands
3. Pancreas
- It is both exocrine (secreting
pancreatic juice containing
digestive enzymes) and
endocrine (producing several
important hormones, including
insulin, glucagon, and
somatostatin).
- It also produces digestive
enzymes that pass into the
small intestine. These enzymes
help in the further breakdown of
the carbohydrates, protein, and
fat in the chyme.
The Digestive Glands

4. Gastric glands
- Branched tubular glands lying in the
mucosa of the fundus and body of the
stomach; such glands contain parietal
cells that secrete hydrochloric acid,
zymogen cells that produce pepsin, and
mucous cells.
The Digestive glands

5. Intestinal glands
-secrete various
enzymes, including
sucrase and maltase,
along with
endopeptidases and
exopeptidases
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Enzymes involved in Digestion

 polysaccharides → maltose
→ glucose
 proteins → peptides → amino acids

 fats → fatty acids and glycerol

Respiratory
System
Respiratory system

 The primary function of the respiratory

system is to supply the blood with oxygen in
order for the blood to deliver oxygen to all
parts of the body
 This is done through breathing.
 Breathing involves the mechanical act of
inhalation and exhalation.
Parts of the Respiratory System:
A. Upper respiratory tract
1. Nose
2. Nasal cavity
3. Pharynx
a. nasopharynx
b. oropharynx
4. Larynx or voice box, which contains the
vocal cords
Parts of the Respiratory System

B. Lower Respiratory tract

1. Trachea or windpipe - filters the air we
breathe and branches into the bronchi.
2. Bronchi - two air tubes that branch off of
the trachea and carry air directly into the
lungs.
3. Bronchioles
Parts of the Respiratory System

C. Lungs
- are the main organs of the respiratory
system.
- Alveoli are the millions of tiny compartments
of the lungs where exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide takes place.
- Pleural cavity
- Pleura
Parts of the Respiratory System

Diaphragm
- a dome-shaped
muscle at the
bottom of the lungs
- main muscle used
in breathing
Pathway of Air from Environment to the
Lungs:
 Air enters the nostrils
 passes through the nasopharynx, to
 the oral pharynx
 through the glottis, then the larynx,
 into the trachea
 into the right and left bronchi, which branches and
rebranches into
 bronchioles, each of which terminates in a cluster
of
 alveoli
Frequently Asked Questions

Why Do I Yawn?
When you are sleepy or drowsy the lungs
do not take enough oxygen from the air. This
causes a shortage of oxygen in our bodies.
The brain senses this shortage of oxygen and
sends a message that causes you to take a
deep long breath---a YAWN.
Frequently Asked Questions

Why Do I Sneeze?
Sneezing is like a cough in the upper
breathing passages. It is the body's way of
removing an irritant from the sensitive
mucous membranes of the nose. Many things
can irritate the mucous membranes. Dust,
pollen, pepper or even a cold blast of air are
just some of the many things that may cause
you to sneeze.
Frequently Asked Questions

What Causes Hiccups?

Hiccups are the sudden movements of the
diaphragm. It is involuntary --- you have no
control over hiccups, as you well know. There
are many causes of hiccups. The diaphragm
may get irritated, you may have eaten to fast,
or maybe some substance in the blood could
even have brought on the hiccups.
CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM
Functions of the Circulatory System

 moves nutrients, gases, and wastes to and

from cells,
 helps fight diseases and
 helps stabilize body temperature and pH
to maintain homeostasis
Components of the Circulatory
System
A. The Blood
B. The Blood
Vessels
C. The Heart
The Heart
 Muscular organ in all vertebrates
responsible for pumping blood through the
blood vessels by repeated, rhythmic
contractions
 The term cardiac (as in cardiology) means
"related to the heart" and comes from the
Greek καρδία, kardia, for "heart."
The Heart

 The heart of a vertebrate is composed of

cardiac muscle, an involuntary muscle
tissue which is found only within this
organ.
 The average human heart beating at 72
BPM, will beat approximately 2.5 billion
times during a lifetime spanning 66 years.
The Structure of the Heart
The Blood
 a specialized bodily fluid that delivers
necessary substances to the body's
cells—such as nutrients and oxygen—and
transports waste products away from
those same cells.
 composed of blood cells suspended in a
liquid called blood plasma.
The Blood

 Plasma
 comprises 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water
(90% by volume)
 contains dissolved proteins, glucose, mineral
ions, hormones, carbon dioxide (plasma
being the main medium for excretory product
transportation), platelets and blood cells
themselves
The Blood
Blood cells
 mainly red blood
cells
(erythrocytes)
and white blood
cells
(leukocytes),
and platelets
(thrombocytes)
.
The Blood
The Blood Vessels

 transport blood throughout the body.

 Capillaries the microscopic vessels which
enable the actual exchange of water and
chemicals between the blood and the tissues,
 Arteries, carry oxygenated blood away from
the heart.
 Veins, carry oxygen-poor blood towards the
heart
 Systemic circulation is the portion of the
cardiovascular system which carries
oxygenated blood away from the heart, to
the body, and returns deoxygenated blood
back to the heart.
 The coronary circulatory system
provides a blood supply to the heart. As it
provides oxygenated blood to the heart, it
is by definition a part of the systemic
circulatory system.
 Pulmonary circulation is the portion of the
cardiovascular system which carries oxygen-
depleted blood away from the heart, to the
lungs, and returns oxygenated blood back to
the heart.
 De-oxygenated blood enters the right atrium of
the heart and flows into the right ventricle
where it is pumped through the pulmonary
arteries to the lungs. Pulmonary veins return
the now oxygen-rich blood to the heart, where
it enters the left atrium before flowing into the
left ventricle. From the left ventricle the
oxygen-rich blood is pumped out via the aorta,
and on to the rest of the body.
Amazing Fact

 If you took all of the blood vessels out of an

average child, and laid them out in one line,
the line would be over 60,000 miles long! An
adult's vessels would be closer to 100,000
miles long!