FOUNDATION CHEMISTRY I

CHM092
CHAPTER 1
MATTER AND
STOICHIOMETRY

PREPARED BY
SYED ABDUL ILLAH ALYAHYA
 Main Topics
1.1 Matter
1.2 Naming of Compounds
1.3 Stoichiometry
1.4 Concentrations of Solutions
 1.1 Matter

1.1.1 Matter
1.1.2 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1.1.2 Atom/Elements
1.1.3 Molecules
1.1.4 Ions
 Matter
Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass.

All matter is made of atoms

Microscopic
Macroscopic
A combination of scanning transmission electron microscopy and atomic-
resolution spectroscopic techniques are able to capture a single atom of
material
 Classifications of Matter
Elements and compounds.
An element is a substance that cannot be
separated into simpler substances by chemical
means.
114 elements have been identified
82 elements occur naturally on Earth
32 elements have been created by scientists
technetium, americium, seaborgium

A compound is a substance composed of atoms of two

or more elements chemically united in fixed proportions.
Compounds can only be separated into their pure
components (elements) by chemical means.
 Classifications of Matter
Substances and mixtures.
A substance is a form of matter that has a definite
composition and distinct properties.
A mixture is a combination of two or more substances
in which the substances retain their distinct identities.
Homogenous mixture – composition of the
mixture is the same throughout

liquid nitrogen

Heterogeneous mixture – composition is not uniform

throughout

cement,
iron filings in sand
 The Three-States of Matter

gas

A solid has a fixed shape and volume. Solids

may be hard or soft, rigid or flexible.

A liquid has a varying shape that conforms to

the shape of the container, but a fixed volume.
A liquid has an upper surface.
liquid solid
A gas has no fixed shape or volume and
therefore does not have a surface.
 Change of State

A physical change does not alter the composition or identity

of a substance.

A chemical change alters the composition or identity of the

substance(s) involved.
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1808- John Dalton postulated about
atom
1. matter is made up of tiny atoms
2. atoms of the same element are
identical
3. atoms combine in definite ratios
to form compounds.
4. atom is neither created nor
destroyed in chemical reaction

This set aside false idea promoted by Aristotle 2000 years earlier that matter
was continuous, and reaffirmed Democritus’s early “atomic model.”
 Atoms
 All atoms are made up of subatomic particles
which are identical in all atoms
 Consists of a nucleus surrounded by electron
cloud
 Nucleus of an atom are called nucleons
 Nucleons consists of protons and neutrons
Atomic Structure
 Atomic Structure
 Protons and neutrons vibrate, but are basically
motionless.
 The nucleus is very tiny compared to the atom as
a whole, taking up less than 1% of the total
volume
 Electrons are located relatively far from the
nucleus in “energy levels” where they move
randomly at very high speeds creating “shells”
These “electron clouds” make up more than 99%
of the volume of an atom, but almost none of the
mass.
 Atomic Structure

Properties of the Three Key Subatomic Particles

Charge Mass

Name Relative Absolute (C)* Relative Absolute (g) Location in

(Symbol) (amu)† Atom

Proton 1+ +1.60218x10-19 1.00727 1.67262x10-24 Nucleus

(p+)

Neutron 0 0 1.00866 1.67493x10-24 Nucleus

(n0)

Electron 1- -1.60218x10-19 0.00054858 9.10939x10-28 Outside

(e-) nucleus

mass p ≈ mass n ≈ 1840 x mass e-

 Just Imagine!

“If the atom is the Houston Astrodome, then the

nucleus is a marble on the 50-yard line.”
 Atomic Structure
Atomic Number or Proton Number
Each element has a unique number of protons in
its nucleus
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
called the(A)atomic
Mass number = number of number (Z)of neutrons
protons + number
the elements are arranged
= atomic number (Z) + numberon the Periodic Table in
of neutrons
order of their atomic numbers
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their
Each element has a unique
nuclei name and symbol
symbol either one or two letters
one capital letter or one capital letter and one lowercase
letter
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their
nuclei
 Atomic Structure
Nucleon Number or Mass Number

The nucleon number (A) is the total number of

protons and neutrons in the nucleus
Neutrons act as a type of “insulation” between the
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
protons, preventing them from repelling each other.
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their
nuclei
 Isotopes
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same
number of protons
 Isotopes of an element have different masses
 Isotopes of an element have different numbers of neutrons
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
MassIsotopes are identified by their mass numbers, which is
number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
the sum of all the protons and neutrons in the nucleus
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
 All isotopes of an element are chemically identical
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their
undergo the exact samenuclei chemical reactions
 Isotopes have different physical properties such as melting
point, boiling point, density and rate of diffusion
 Isotopes
Isotopes and Isotopic Abundance
 A few elements such as fluorine and aluminium exists
only in one isotope
 Fluorine-19 and Aluminium-27 (100% relative abundance)
Atomic 
number (Z) = number of
the percentage ofprotons in nucleus
an element that is one isotope is called the
isotope’s
Mass number natural
(A) = number of abundance
protons + number of neutrons
 Most elements exists (Z)
= atomic number as+ number
mixtures of two or more naturally
of neutrons
occurring isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their
 there are two isotopes of chlorine
nuclei found in nature, one that has a
mass of about 35 amu (75.5%) and the other about 37 amu
(24.5%)
 The abundance of each isotope in the mixture is called its
isotopic abundance
 The observed mass is a weighted average of the weights
of all the naturally occurring atoms
 Thus, the atomic mass of chlorine is 35.45 amu
 Isotopes
Isotope Uranium

• Atomic number
 Number of protons= 92
 Z

• Mass Number
 Protons + neutrons = 235
 whole number
 A

• Abundance = relative
amount found in a sample
 Elements
Most elements have single atoms as their constituent
particles
The atoms may be physically attracted to each other, but
are not chemically bonded together

Model of the face-centered cubic crystal structure of copper showing one

unit cell. Distance between centers of corner atoms is 3.6 angstroms
 Molecular Elements
A few elements have molecules as their constituent
particles
The molecules are made of two or more atoms (same
atom) chemically bonded together by covalent bonds
 Molecules
A molecule is an aggregate of two or more
atoms (same atoms or different atom) in a specific
geometrical arrangement held together by
chemical forces.
attachments are called bonds
attachments come in different strengths
come in different shapes and patterns
 Molecules
Elements/atoms combine together to make an almost
limitless number of compounds
The properties of the compound are totally different from
the constituent elements
Property Sodium + Chlorine Sodium Chloride
Melting point 97.8°C -101°C 801°C
Boiling point 881.4°C -34°C 1413°C
Color Silvery Yellow-green Colorless (white)
Density 0.97 g/cm3 0.0032 g/cm3 2.16 g/cm3
Behavior in water Reacts Dissolves slightly Dissolves freely
 Reacting Atoms
 When elements undergo chemical reactions, the reacting
atoms do not turn into other elements
 Statement 4 of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
 This requires that all the atoms present when you start the
reaction will still be there after the reaction
 Because the number of protons determines the kind of
element, the number of protons in the atom does not
change in a chemical reaction
 However, many reactions involve transferring electrons
from one atom to another
 Charged Atoms

 When atoms gain or lose electrons, they acquire a charge

 Charged atoms or groups of atoms are called ions
 When atoms gain electrons, they become negatively
charged ions, called anions
 When atoms lose electrons, they become positively
charged ions, called cations
Ions behave much differently than the neutral atoms
e.g., the metal sodium, made of neutral Na atoms, is highly reactive
and quite unstable; however, the sodium cations, Na+, found in table
salt are very nonreactive and stable
Because materials such as table salt are neutral, there must
be equal amounts of charge from cations and anions in them
 Charged Atoms
 Nonmetals form anions
 For each negative charge, the ion has one more electron
than the neutral atom
F = 9 p+ and 9 e−, F− = 9 p+ and 10 e−
P = 15 p+ and 15 e−, P3− = 15 p+ and 18 e−

 Metals form cations

 For each positive charge, the ion has one less electron
than the neutral atom
 Na atom = 11 p+ and 11 e−, Na+ ion = 11 p+ and 10 e−
 Ca atom = 20 p+ and 20 e−, Ca2+ ion = 20 p+ and 18 e−
 Ion Charge

 The charge on an ion can often be determined from an

element’s position on the Periodic Table
 Metals always form positively charged cations
 For many main group metals, the charge = the group
number
 Nonmetals form negatively charged anions
 For nonmetals, the charge = the group number − 8
Ion Charge
 Compound
a substance composed of two or more elements which are
chemically combined (electrovalent or covalent)
 Compound
Ionic Compounds
Compounds of metals with nonmetals are made of ions
metal atoms form cations, nonmetal atoms form anions
Each cation is surrounded by anions and vice-versa
No individual molecule units, instead they have a 3-
dimensional array of cations and anions made of formula
units

Table salt – contains an array of Na+ ions and Cl- ions

 Compound
Molecular Compounds
Compounds are composed of individual molecule units
Each molecule contains atoms (non-metal) of different
elements chemically attached by covalent bonds

Propane – contains
individual C3H8
molecules
 Compound
Ionic Compounds Contains polyatomic Ions
Compound contains polyatomic ions
several atoms attached together by covalent bonds into
one ion
 Mixture
 A group of two or more elements and/or
compounds that are physically intermingled.
Checkpoint 1
The scenes below represent an atomic-scale view of
substance A undergoing two different changes. Decide
whether each scene shows a physical or a chemical change.
Checkpoint 2

Classify each of the following as either an Atomic Element,

Molecular Element, Molecular Compound, or Ionic Compound

Argon, Ar
Barium chloride, BaCl2
Phosphorus, P4
Acetone, C3H6O
Calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2
Nikel, Ni
Checkpoint 3
The following scenes represent an atomic-scale view of
three samples of matter. Describe each sample as an
element, compound, or mixture.
 1.2 Naming of Chemical
Compounds
1.2.1 Naming Binary Ionic Compound for
Metals with Invariant Charge
1.2.2 Naming Binary Ionic Compound for
Metals with Variable Charges
1.2.3 Naming Compound Containing
Polyatomic Ions
1.2.4 Acid Nomenclature
1.2.5 Naming Binary Molecular Compounds
of Two Nonmetals
1.2.6 Naming Hydrated Compounds
1.2.7 Basic Nomeclature
Rules for Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
for Metals with Invariant Charge
 Consists of metal (cation) and nonmetal (anion)
 Metal listed first and followed by nonmmetal in formula
1. name metal cation first, name nonmetal anion second
2. cation name should use the metal name itself
3. nonmetal anion named by changing the ending on the nonmetal
name to -ide
 Naming Metal Cations (Invariant Charge)

Metals with invariant charge,

metals whose ions can only
have one possible charge
 Naming Monatomic Nonmetal Anion
 Determine the charge from position on the Periodic Table
 To name anion, change ending on the element name to –
ide
 Example 1: Naming Binary Ionic with Invariant
Charge Metal CsF
1. Identify cation and anion
Cs = Cs+ because it is Group 1A
F = F− because it is Group 7A
2. Name the cation
Cs+ = cesium
3. Name the anion
F− = fluoride
4. Write the cation name first, then the anion name
Cesium fluoride
Checkpoint 4
Name the ionic compound formed from each of the
following pairs of elements:
(a) Bromine and strontium
(b) Rubidium and sulfur
(c) Beryllium and oxygen
Checkpoint 5
Name the ionic compound from each of the following
chemical formulas:
(a) K3N
(b) ScCl3
(c) Al2S3
(d) LiH
Rules for Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
for Metals with Variable Charge
 Consists of metal (cation) and nonmetal anion
 Metal listed first in formula and name
1. name metal cation first, name nonmetal anion second
2. metal cation name is the metal name followed by a Roman numeral
in parentheses to indicate its charge
 determine charge from anion charge
 common ions Table 3.4
3. nonmetal anion named by changing the ending on the nonmetal
name to -ide
 Naming Metal Cations (Variable Charges)
• Metals with variable
Charges
 metals whose ions
can have more than
one possible charge
 determine charge
by charge on anion
and cation
 name = metal name
with Roman
numeral charge in
parentheses
 Example 2: Naming binary ionic with variable
charge metal CuF2
1. Identify the cation and anion
F = F− because it is Group 7
Cu = Cu2+ to balance the two (−) charges from 2 F−
2. Name the cation
Cu2+ = copper(II)
3. Name the anion
F− = fluoride
4. Write the cation name first, then the anion name
copper(II) fluoride
Checkpoint 6
Name the ionic compound formed from each of the
following pairs of elements:
(a) Bromine and chromium (II)
(b) Cobalt (III) and sulfur
(c) Fluorine and copper (II)
(d) Tin (IV) and oxygen
Checkpoint 7
Name the ionic compound from each of the following
chemical formulas:
a) VI3
b) MnS2
c) PbCl4
d) Hg2Br2
 Rules for Naming Compounds Containing
Polyatomic Ions
 Polyatomic ions are single ions that contain more than one
atom
 Often identified by parentheses around ion in formula
 Name and charge of polyatomic ion do not change
 Name any ionic compound by naming cation first and then
anion
 Polyatomic Cations and Anions
Formula Name Formula Name
Common Cations
NH4+ ammonium H 3 O+ hydronium
CH3NH3+ metylammonium NH3+OH hydroxylammonium
Common Anions
CH3COO- acetate CO32- carbonate
CN- cyanide HCO3- bicarbonate
OH- hydroxide CrO42- chromate
ClO- hypochlorite Cr2O72- dichromate
ClO2- chlorite O22- peroxide
ClO3- chlorate PO43- phosphate
NO2- nitrite HPO42- hydrogen phosphate
NO3- nitrate SO32- sulfite
MnO4- permanganate SO42- sulfate
Example 3: Naming ionic compounds containing
an invariant charge metal with polyatomic ion
Na2SO4
1. Identify the ions
Na = Na+ because in Group 1A
SO4 = SO42− a polyatomic ion
2. Name the cation
Na+ = sodium, metal with invariant charge
3. Name the anion
SO42− = sulfate
4. Write the name of the cation followed by the name of the
anion
sodium sulfate
 Example 4: Naming ionic compounds containing
variable charges metal with polyatomic ion
Fe(NO3)3
1. Identify the ions
NO3 = NO3− a polyatomic ion
Fe = Fe3+ to balance the charge of the 3 NO3−
2. Name the cation
Fe3+ = iron(III), metal with variable charge
3. Name the anion
NO3− = nitrate
4. Write the name of the cation followed by the name of the
anion
iron(III) nitrate
 Example 5: Naming compounds containing
polyatomic cation and polyatomic anion
(NH4)2CO3
1. Identify the cation
NH4+ = ammonium
2. Identify the anion
CO32− = carbonate
3. Write the name of the cation followed by the name of the
anion
Ammonium carbonate
Checkpoint 8
Name the polyatomic ion compound
(a) Ba(NO3)2
(b) Cu(CN)2
(c) CH3NH3Br
Periodic Pattern of Polyatomic Ions
-ate groups
 Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature
 When there are two oxyanions involving the same element:
– The one with fewer oxygens ends in -ite.
• NO2− : nitrite; SO32− : sulfite
– The one with more oxygens ends in -ate.
• NO3− : nitrate; SO42− sulfate
 If the polyatomic ion have charge more than -1 for
example CO32-, PO43- or SO42- , add hydrogen in front of
ion then use hydrogen- prefix before name and neutral 1
to the charge
• CO32− = carbonate  HCO3− = hydrogen carbonate
• SO42- = sulfate  HSO4- = hydrogen sulfate
• PO43- = phosphate  HPO42- = hydrogen phosphate
If add another one hydrogen
• PO43- = phosphate  H2PO4- = Dihydrogen phosphate
© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
 Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature
• The one with the second fewest oxygens ends in -ite.
– ClO2− : chlorite
• The one with the second most oxygens ends in -ate.
– ClO3− : chlorate

• The one with the fewest oxygens has the prefix hypo - and
ends in -ite.
– ClO− : hypochlorite
• The one with the most oxygens has the prefix per- and
ends in -ate.
– ClO4− : perchlorate

© 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Acid Nomenclature
• If the anion in the acid
ends in -ate, change
the ending to -ic acid.
– HClO3: chloric acid
– HClO4: perchloric acid

• If the anion in the acid

ends in -ite, change
the ending to -ous
acid.
– HClO: hypochlorous acid
– HClO2: chlorous acid
Acid Nomenclature

• If the anion in the acid

ends in -ide, change
the ending to -ic acid
and add the prefix
hydro- .
– HCl: hydrochloric acid
– HBr: hydrobromic acid
– HI: hydroiodic acid
Acid Nomenclature

61
Checkpoint 9
Name the following oxoacid and oxoanion
(a) HBrO
(b) H2AsO4-
(c) HNO2
(d) IO4-
(e) CrO42-
(f) H2Cr2O7
 Rules for Naming of Binary Molecular
Compounds of Two Nonmetals
1. Write name of first element in formula
a) element furthest left and down on the Periodic Table
b) use the full name of the element
2. Writes name the second element in the formula with an -
ide suffix
a) as if it were an anion, however, remember these compounds do
not contain ions!
3. Use a prefix in front of each name to indicate the number
of atoms
a) Never use the prefix mono- on the first element
 Subscript – Prefixes

• 1 = mono- • 6 = hexa-
 not used on first nonmetal
• 2 = di- • 7 = hepta-
• 3 = tri- • 8 = octa-
• 4 = tetra- • 9 = nona-
• 5 = penta- • 10 = deca-

• Drop last “a” if name begins with a vowel

 Example 6: Naming a binary molecular
compound SF4
1. Name the first element
sulfur
2. Name the second element with an –ide
fluorine  fluoride
3. Add a prefix to each name to indicate the subscript
Monosulfur, tetrafluoride
4. Write the first element with prefix, then the second
element with prefix
a) drop prefix mono from first element
sulfur tetrafluoride
Checkpoint 10
Name the following molecular compound or write the
chemical formulas for the following molecular
compound
(a) P2O4
(b) I2F7
(c) Diboron trioxide
(d) Bromine pentachloride
 Rules for Naming Hydrated Compounds
• Hydrates are ionic compounds
containing a specific number of waters
for each formula unit
• Water of hydration often “driven off” by
heating
• In formula, attached waters follow ∙
 CoCl2∙6H2O
• In name attached waters indicated by
prefix+hydrate after name of ionic
compound
 CoCl2∙6H2O = cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate
 CaSO4∙½H2O = calcium sulfate hemihydrate
 CoCl2
CoCl2•6H2O

CuSO4•5H2O CuSO4
Checkpoint 11
Name the following compound or write the chemical
formula
(a) BaCl2.2H2O
(b) LiCl.H2O
(c) Sr(NO3)2.4H2O
(d) MgSO4.7H2O

69
 Basic Nomenclature
A base can be defined as a substance that yields
hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water.

NaOH Sodium hydroxide

Invariant KOH Potassium hydroxide

charge
Ba(OH)2 Barium hydroxide

CuOH Copper (I) hydroxide

Variant
Cu(OH)2 Copper (II) hydroxide
charge

Fe(OH)3 Iron (III) hydroxide

70
Checkpoint 12

Explain what is wrong with the name or formula at

the end of each statement and correct it:

(a) Ba(C2H3O2)2 – barium diacetate

(b) Ammonium phosphate – (NH3)4PO4
(c) Iron (II) sulfate – Fe2(SO4)3
(d) Cr(NO3)3 - chromic (III) nitride
(e) Dichlorine heptaoxide – Cl2O6
(f) BrCl3 – Trichlorine bromide
(g) Sodium hypochlorous

71