GROUP 2

MEMBERS:
I WAYAN WIJATMIKA DANANJAYA 1601541002
K. DIAN RANI 1601541003
I MADE EXIS WIJAYA 1601541005
I.G.A. MIRAH CANDRA DEWI 1601541006
ANAK AGUNG GEDE HARI WISHNAWA 1601541009
LINDA CAHYA PURNAMA 1601541011
PUTU ANDINA SEPTAYANI 1601541018
Ambiguity

LEXICAL AMBIGUITY STRUCTURAL AMBIGUITY

I saw a tree. The tall bishop’s hat
I drove my car into the bank. The chicken is ready to eat
Constituency

The words within a phrase or sentence are organized into sub-

groups (or constituents) and these groupings are often crucial
in determining what the sentence means.

There are several ways to prove the sub-groupings within the

sentence
Constituency

Can replace, or be replaced by, a single word

Example:
• Ahmad is eating rice.
• That young man is eating rice.
Constituency

May occur in a number of different sentence

positions and can be moved as a unit.

Example:
• That young man eats fried rice.
• I do not know that young man.
• Mother bought a cup of tea for that young
man.
Constituency

Constituent is a string of words that form a unit

1. *[Perempuan ini] [orang tua itu] makan nasi.

Woman this person old that eat rice
*’This woman that old person is eating rice.’

2. *Fauzi makan [ikan itu] [nasi goreng].

Fauzi eat fish that rice fry
*’Fauzi is eating fried rice that fish.’
Constituency

A group of words forms a syntactic unit constituent

when a group of words can be replaced as a unit

1. Saya makan [ikan besar itu].

I eat fish big that
‘I ate/am eating that big fish.’

2. [Ikan besar itu] saya makan.

fish big that I eat
‘That big fish I ate/am eating.’
Constituency
The phrases as constituents can be substituted by
question words to form a content question also
known as constituent question.
Example:
1. [Orang tua itu] makan [ikan besar itu].
Person old that eat fish big that
‘That old person ate the big fish.’
2. Siapa makan [ikan besar itu]?
Who eat fish big that
‘Who ate that big fish?’
3. [Orang tua itu] makan apa?
Person old that eat what
‘What did that old person eat?’
Constituency
The constituents can form the answer to a content question, yet a
string of words which is not a syntactic constituent is not a possible
answer. Example:
a. Q: Siapa makan ikan besar itu? A: Orang tua itu
Who eat fish big that person old that
Q: ‘Who ate that big fish?’ A: ‘That old person.’

b. Q: Orang tua itu makan apa? A: Ikan besar itu.

Person old that eat what fish big that
Q: ‘What did that old person eat?’ A: ‘That big fish.’

c. Q : Orang tua itu makan apa ? A : *Besar itu

Person old that eat what big that
Q: ‘What did that old person eat?’ A: *’That big.’
Part-whole Hierarchy
SENTENCE

CLAUSE

PHRASE

WORD

MORPHEME
Part-whole Hierarchy

EXAMPLE
“Foxes have holes and birds of the air have nests, but the
Son of Man has no place to lay his head.”
Syntactic Categories
Lexical Categories

A noun is a word that names a person, place, or thing.

A verb is a word that names an action or event.
An adjective is a word that describes a state.
Lexical Categories

Fencing, Deforestation, Beauty (Noun)

Am, is, are, was, were (verb)

Love (verb) fond of(adj.)

Fear (verb) afraid (adj.)
The Task of Assigning Words to Syntactic Categories

“Which words belong together in the same class?”

“What name (or label) should be assigned to a given

word class?”
Example:
They are fools.
They are foolish.
Once the word classes in a particular language
havea Modification
been defined in this
by degree way,
adverb vs. they can be
adjective:
assignedTheyaare utter(Noun,
label fools. *They are very
Verb, etc.)fools.
based on
*They are utter foolish. They are very foolish.
universal
notional
b Inflection patterns.
for number
fool fools
foolish *foolishes
Words that exhibit all of the defining
grammaticalcproperties associated with a
Comparative forms
fool *fooler/*more
particular class are said to be foolprototypical
foolish more foolish
members of that class.
d Occurrence as subject of a clause
Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.
*Foolish rush in where angels fear to tread.
PHRASAL CATEGORIES
In assigning phrase categories, there are two basic questions
should be asked:

(i) how do we know whether two phrases belong to the

same or different categories?

(ii) how do we know what category label to assign to a

particular class of phrases?
 (i) how do we know whether two phrases belong to the same or different
categories?

two phrases belong to the same category if they have the same grammatical properties.

Two basic types of evidence:

(i) mutual substitutability (i.e. sameness of distribution)

The dog catches the cat

NP as Subject
The bird flies to the sky

(ii) sameness of internal structure.

Example:
Determiner The Book Noun
(ii) how do we know what category label to assign to a particular class of
phrases?

Assigning labels to phrasal categories

Based on the HEAD

Example:
The Three Heroes
Head
How to Determine the Phrase’s Head?
First, the head of a phrase determines many of the grammatical features of the phrase as a whole.
Example:
a [The new rice] is in the barn.
b [The new kittens] are in the barn.

Second, the head may determine the number and type of other elements in the phrase.
Example:
a. I am [very grateful to you].
b. John felt [sorry for his actions].

Third, the head is more likely to be obligatory than the modifiers or other non-head elements.

Example:
a [The three little pigs] eat truffles.
b [The three pigs] eat truffles.
c [The pigs] eat truffles.
d [Pigs] eat truffles.
e *[The three little] eat truffles.
English noun phrases do not always contain a head noun. This is
called Ellipsis.

It is because the head is already “understood”

a [The third little pig] was smarter than [the second]

b [the good], [the bad] and [the ugly]

c [The rich] get richer and [the poor] get children

 Not all lexical (word-level) categories can be heads of phrases.

a major categories (can function as heads of phrases)

• Noun (dog, tree, water, kindness, etc.)
• Verb (run, melt, hit, love, etc.)
• Adjective (big, red, friendly, impossible, etc.)
• Adverb (quickly, unexpectedly, fortunately, etc.)12
• Preposition (on, under, from, etc.)

b minor categories (do not normally function as heads of phrases)

• Conjunction (and, or, but, etc.)
• Interjection (oh, ah, well, ouch, etc.)
• Determiners: includes articles (a, the), demonstratives (this, that), and
• quantifiers (all, some, many, etc.)
 Tree Diagrams
(representing the constituents of a clause)

A. Phrase Structure Diagrams

Larger
Size A Mother

Constituency

Lower B Sister C Daughters

Linear Order
 Tree Diagrams
(representing the constituents of a clause)

A. Phrase Structure Diagrams

Syntactic Category:
Word level: Phrase level:
N = Noun NP = Noun Phrase
A = Adjective AP = Adjective Phrase
V = Verb VP = Verb Phrase
P = Preposition PP = Prepositional Phrase
Adv = Adverb S = Sentence or Clause
Det = Determiner
Conj = Conjunction
 Tree Diagrams
(representing the constituents of a clause)

A. Phrase Structure Diagrams

S Root Node
A Mother
Non-terminal
NP V Nodes
Branch Nodes
Det N
B Sister C Daughters
My sister sleeps Leaves Terminal
Nodes
“My sister sleeps”
Terminal Elements
=
Terminal String
B. Constraints on Tree Structures

No Crossing Single Mother

Constraint Constraint
C. Phrase Structure Rules

(a) A  B C
(c) Det  {the, a, an, this, that, my, …}
(b) NP  Det N N  {beach, house, boy, girl, …}

(e) NP
(d) Any lexical category (N, V, etc.) may
have a single daughter node which is a det N
specific lexical item of the same
category.
the boy
C. Phrase Structure Rules

The rules of phrasal categories that can be expanded in more than one way.

B
(f) A  B (C) (g) A 
C
AB AB
AB C AC
a. The quick red fox jumped over the lazy brown dog.
b. *The quick red she jumped over the lazy brown him.
c. She jumped over him.