CHAPTER 6

PROKARYOTIC AND
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Microscopy
• The first microscopes used is light microscope (LMs)
- the visible light is passed through the specimen and then
through the glass lenses
- the lenses refract the light so that the image of the
specimen is magnified as it is projected into the eye
• Two important parameters in microscopy are:
1. Magnification – the ratio of an object’s image to its real size
2. Resolving power or resolution – a measure of clarity of the
image; the minimum distance of two points can be
separated and still be distinguish as two points
• LMs cannot resolve detail finer than about 0.2 m or 200 nm
• This resolution is limited by the shortest wavelength of light
used to illuminate the specimen
• LMs can magnify to about 1000 times
• The first cell was discovered
by Robert Hooke (1665)
Microscopy
• The advanced microscope is the electron microscope (EM)
• It focuses a beam of electrons through the specimen or onto its surface
• Resolution is inversely related to the wavelength of the radiation a
microscope uses for imaging
• Electrons beam have wavelengths much shorter than the wavelengths
of visible light
• EM can reveal the cell ultrastructure
• Two basic types of electron microscopes;
1. Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
- more on the detail study of the surface of a specimen
2. Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
- to study the internal ultrastructure
TEM : Tracheal cell revealing its SEM : showing a 3D image of a
ultrasructure. Rabbit trachea covered cilia
Isolating Organelles by Cell Fractionation
• The purpose is to take cells apart and separate the
major organelles from one another
• Instrument used is the centrifuge that separates the
cell components by size and density. It rotates to
disrupt the cell at various speed
The importance of compartmental organization
• Eukaryotic cells are generally bigger than the prokaryotic cell
• Size relates to the cells function
• As a object of a particular shape increases in size, its volume
grows proportionately more than its surface area. Thus, smaller
object has greater ratio of surface are to volume.
Comparisons between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
• Basic features in common : bounded by plasma
membrane, contain cytosol, chromosomes and
ribosomes.
• Major difference :
In Prokaryotic cell, the DNA is concentrated in a
region called the nucleoid, with no membrane
surrounds it. No membrane bounded organelles found
in this cell.
In Eukaryotic cell, it has a true nucleus bounded by
nuclear envelope. It also consists of membrane
bounded organelles.
Comparison between Prokaryotic Cell and Eukaryotic Cell

Flagella
A A view of the Eukaryotic Cells
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Nucleus
• Contains most of the genes
• ~ 5 m Ø
• Nuclear envelope encloses the
nucleus
• Chromosomes, a structure that
carries genetic information
• Chromatin, a complex of proteins and
DNA that builds up chromosome
• Nucleolus a mass of densely stained
granules and fibers adjoining part of
the chromatin
• Nuclear matrix a framework of fibers
extending throughout the nuclear
interior
• Nucleoplasm is colourless fluid
contained within the nucleus in which
the chromosomes and nucleoli are
found
Nuclear envelope
• Double membrane, each a lipid
bilayer with associated proteins,
separated by a space of 20-40
nm
• Perforated by pores ~ 100nm Ø
• An intricate protein structure called a pore complex lines each
pore and regulates the entry and exit of certain large
macromolecules and particles

• Except at the nuclear side of the envelope which is lined by the

nuclear lamina a netlike array of protein filaments that maintains
the shape of the nucleus by mechanically supporting the nuclear
envelope
Chromosomes
• An organized unit of DNA, carries the
genetic information
• Each chromosome is made up of a
material called chromatin a complex
of proteins and DNA
• During cell division, the thin chromatin
fibers become a thick structure known
as chromosomes
• A typical human cell has 46 chromosomes
– a combination of 23 chromosomes of egg and sperm cells
Nucleolus
• a mass of densely stained
granules and fibers adjoining part
of the chromatin
• rRNA is synthesized from
instructions in the DNA with the
protein from cytoplasma, into its
small and large ribosomal subunit
in nucleolus
• It will exit the nucleus to the
cytoplasm and assemble to
become the ribosome
Ribosomes: Protein factories in the cell
• Made of ribosomal RNA and protein that carry out protein synthesis
• Cells that have a high protein synthesis have a large number of this cell
• Not enclosed in membrane

• 2 types of ribosome based on its location:

1. Free ribosomes : suspended in the cytosol and build protein that
function in the cytosol. Ex: enzyme for sugar breakdown
2. Bounded ribosomes : attached to the outside of the endoplasmic
reticulum or nuclear envelope; make proteins for insertion into
membranes, for packaging within certain organelles such as
lysosomes
The Endomembrane System
• Functions:
1. Synthesis of proteins and their transport into
membranes, organelles or part of the cell
2. Metabolism and movement of lipids
3. Detoxification of poisons
• The system includes:
1. Nuclear envelope
2. Endoplasmic reticulum
3. Golgi apparatus
4. Lysosomes
5. Vesicles
6. Plasma membrane (related to the system)
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) : Biosynthetic Factory
• Latin words – little net within the cytoplasm
• Consists of a network of membranous tubules and sacs called
cisternae
• ER membrane separates the internal compartment of the ER – ER
lumen or cisternal space from the cytosol
• Continuous with nuclear envelope
• Two types of ER:
1. Smooth ER :
- Outer surface lack of ribosomes
- synthesis of lipid which include steroid,
metabolism of carbohydrates and
detoxification of drugs and poison

2. Rough ER :
- It has ribosomes on the outer surface
- synthesis of protein and its own membrane
The Golgi Apparatus (GA) : Shipping and receiving center
• Functions: Center for manufacturing, warehousing, sorting and
shipping. Products of ER are modified, stored and sent to their
destination
• Consists of flattened membranous sacs – cisternae that stack together
• Vesicles concentrated in the vicinity of the GA are engaged in the
transfer of material between GA and other structures.
• Two poles of GA stack : cis face (receiving) and trans face (shipping)
• Cis face is usually located near the ER

• Trans face gives rise to vesicles, which

pinch off and travel to other sites
Lysosomes : Digestive Compartments
• A membranous sac of hydrolytic
enzymes that is used to digest
macromolecules
• Lysosomal enzymes works in acidic
environment and perform
autodigestion which destroy the cell
itself
• Hydrolytic enzymes and lysosomal
membrane are made by RER and
then transferred to the GA for
prosessing
• Some lysosome arise by budding
from trans face of GA
• Functions:
1. Intracellular digestion
2. Involved in phagocytosis.
Ex. In Amoeba
3. Autophagy – recycle of cell’s
own organic materials
Vacuoles : Diverse Maintenance Compartments
• Found in plant or fungal cell
• In mature plant cells, vacuoles enclosed
by a membrane called tonoplast which
is selective in transporting solutes
• Functions:
1. Hydrolysis (=lysosomes)
2. As food vacuoles
3. Contractile vacuoles
– regulates water in the cell
4. As a storage cells in seed
5. As disposal sites for metabolic by-products
6. Protect the plant by containing compounds that are poisonous
• A large vacuole will create a thin layer between plasma membrane
and tonoplast, therefore, the ratio of membrane surface to cytosolic
volume is great
Mitochondria and chloroplasts:

Change energy from one form to another

• Semiautonomous organelles that grow and reproduce within the cell
• Contains small amount of DNA that programs the synthesis of proteins

Chloroplast

Mitochondria
Mitochondria : Chemical energy Conversion
• Functions : Sites of cellular
respiration, the metabolic process
that generates ATP by extracting
energy from sugars, fats and other
fuels with the help of oxygen
• Enclosed by two membranes, a
phospholipid bilayer with
embedded protein
• The outer membrane is smooth,
inner membrane is convoluted
forming cristae that increase the
surface area for cellular respiration
• Consists of two compartments : intermembrane space and
mitochondrial matrix
• Mitochondrial matrix contains many enzymes, mitochondrial DNA and
ribosomes
Chloroplasts : Capture of light energy
• A type of plastids
• 3 types of plastids:
1. Amyloplasts – colorless plastids that store starch,
particularly in root and tuber
2. Chromoplasts – contain pigments that give fruits
and flowers their orange and yellow hues
3. Chloroplasts – contain the green pigment
chlorophyll, along with enzymes and other
molecules that function in photosynthetic
production of sugars
• Lens-shaped, ~ 2m by 5m, enclosed by two membranes
separated by intermembrane space
• Within the cell, there are thylakoids a flattened interconnected
sacs; a stack of thylakoids is called granum
• The fluid outside the thylakoids is called stroma which contains the
chloroplasts DNA, ribosomes and some enzymes
• Three compartments : the intermembrane space, the stroma and
the thylakoid space
Peroxisomes : Oxidation
• A specialized metabolic compartment
bounded by a single membrane
• Contain enzymes that transfer
hydrogen from various substrates
to oxygen, producing H2O2 as a
by-product
• It also use oxygen to break fatty
acids down, transported to
mitochondria for cellular respiration
• In liver, it detoxify alcohol and other
harmful compounds
• Grow by incorporating proteins made in
the cytosol, in ER and within the
peroxisomes itself
• It may increase in number by splitting
into two
Cytoskeleton : Network of fibers that organizes structures
and activities in the cell
Composed of three types of molecular structure: microtubules,
microfilaments and intermediate filaments
• Functions:
1. Mechanical support to
the cell
2. Maintain the cells
shape
3. Provides anchorage for
many organelles
4. Cell motility – in cell
location and
movements of part of
the cell

• Cell motility requires the

interaction of the cytoskeleton
with motor proteins
Microtubule
Centrosome and centrioles
• A region near nucleus that is considered to be a
‘microtubule-organizing center’
• Within the centrosome of an animal cell are a pair of
centrioles, each composed of nine sets of triplet
microtubules arranged in a ring
Microtubule
• Flagella
- Usually one or a few per
cell
- Same Ø but longer,
~ 10-200 m long

• Cilia
- Occur in large numbers
on the cell surface
- ~0.25 m Ø and ~2-20m
long
• Ultrastructure : “9+2” pattern – 9 doublets microtubules arranged in a
ring and in the center are two single microtubules
• Anchored in the cell by a basal body
• Each motor protein extending from one microtubule
doublet to the next is large protein dynein that
responsible for the bending movement of cilia and
flagella
Microfilament
(Actin filament)
• Solid rod ~ 7 nm Ø
• Build from actin molecule
• It is a twisted double
chain of actin subunits
• Involves in muscle cells
movement, ameboid
movement and
cytoplasmic streaming
Intermediate filament
• ~ 8-12 nm Ø
• Constructed from a different molecular subunit of
protein include keratin
• Often disassembled and
reassembled in various
part in the cells
• Make up nuclear lamina
• Help to support cells shape
 Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells
• Consists of glycoproteins secreted by the cells
• Mostly collagen which forms strong fibers outside the cells

Proteoglycan Collagen fibers are

complex consists of embedded in the
hundreds of web of
proteoglycan proteoglycan
molecules attached complexes
noncovalently to a
single long
polysaccharide Fibronectin
molecule attaches the ECM
to intergrins
Intergrin are embedded in the
membrane proteins plasma membrane
that are bound to the
ECM and protein that
attached to
microfilament.
Intercellular Junction
• Plants : Plasmodesmata
Perforated channels on cell walls. Water and small solutes pass
freely from cell to cell through plasmodesmata.
• Animals : Tight Junctions, Desmosomes and Gap Junctions
Tight Junction
The membranes of neighbouring cells are
tightly pressed against each other, bound
together by specific proteins. Prevent
leakage of extracellular fluid.

Desmosomes (anchoring junction)

Functions like rivets, fastening cells
together. Intermediate filament made of
keratin anchor desmosomes in cytoplasm.

Gap Junction
Provide cytoplasmic channels between
cells. Necessary for cells communication
Cell Walls of Plants
• Extracellular structure of plants
• Functions: Protection, maintains its shape and prevents excessive
uptake of water
• Basic components that makes up the wall is cellulose
• Consists of thin and flexible primary cell wall, middle lamela rich with
pectin that glues adjacent cells together
• Some has secondary cell wall – cell protection and support
• Plasmodesmata – a channel between adjacent cells