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MambetkazievaAiganysh
PSY-107
 ‘bservational Research
‡ is the process of watching people in
context ² in their natural environment,
doing routine activities.



    


  
   


 
 


  



 ‘

‡ is a primary method of collecting data by
human, mechanical, electrical or electronic
means. The researcher may or may not
have direct contact or communication with
the people whose behavior is being
recorded.
‡
  ‡ 

‡ The data gathered is not ‡ More costly.
mediated by the subject. ‡ Difficult to do and
‡ Results are not defined by the administer.
design of the method. ‡ Time-consuming.
‡ The results are supported by ‡ Uses very small study
verifiable evidence. groups.
‡ Research is done in context. ‡ Results are more
‡ Uncovers embodied subjective.
knowledge.
‡ Uncovers problems for which
the subjects have developed
workarounds.
‡ Uncovers problems and
behaviors that people didn¶t
know they had.
Õ
  



‡ The major tool of ‘bservational Research is
videotaping. With ‘bservational Research,
depending on the goals and needs of the study,
researchers can gather anywhere from ten to
hundreds of hours of documented observations.
‡ Researchers then work together to systematically
analyze and interpret the gathered data.
‡ The goal of observational research is to capture
the embodied knowledge ± tacit, nonscientific
knowledge ± the type of findings that cannot be
uncovered in surveys and focus groups. To that
end, researchers can pay attention to minute
details that can often be overlooked.
 A Classification of ‘bservation
Methods


 


 
  

 







 ‘



Personal ‘bservation
‡ A researcher observes actual behavior as it
occurs.
‡ The observer does not attempt to manipulate the
phenomenon being observed but merely records
what takes place.
‡ For example, a researcher might record traffic
counts and observe traffic flows in a department
store.
 ‘



Mechanical ‘bservation
Õ 


!  

± turnstiles that record the number of people
entering or leaving a building.
± ‘n-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video)

± ‘ptical scanners in supermarkets

Õ 


 

± eye-tracking monitors

± pupilometers

± psychogalvanometers

± voice pitch analyzers

± devices measuring response latency

 ‘



Audit
‡ The researcher collects data by examining
physical records or performing inventory
analysis.
‡ Data are collected personally by the researcher.
‡ The data are based upon counts, usually of
physical objects.
‡ Retail and wholesale audits conducted by
marketing research suppliers
 ‘



Content Analysis
‡ The objective, systematic, and quantitative
description of the manifest content of a
communication.
‡ The unit of analysis may be words, characters
(individuals or objects), themes (propositions),
space and time measures (length or duration of
the message), or topics (subject of the
message).
‡ Analytical categories for classifying the units are
developed and the communication is broken
down according to prescribed rules.
 ‘



Trace Analysis
Data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of past
behavior.

‡ The selective erosion of tiles in a museum indexed by the

replacement rate was used to determine the relative popularity
of exhibits.
‡ The number of different fingerprints on a page was used to
gauge the readership of various advertisements in a magazine.
‡ The position of the radio dials in cars brought in for service
was used to estimate share of listening audience of various
radio stations.
‡ The age and condition of cars in a parking lot were used to
assess the affluence of customers.
‡ The magazines people donated to charity were used to
determine people's favorite magazines.
‡ Internet visitors leave traces which can be analyzed to
examine browsing and usage behavior by using cookies.
 A Comparative Evaluation of
‘bservation Methods



 











Degree of structure Low Low to high High High Medium

Degree of disguise Medium Low to high Low High High
Ability to observe High Low to high High Medium Low
in natural setting
‘bservation bias High Low Low Medium Medium
Analysis Bias High Low to Low Low Medium
Medium
General remarks Most Can be Expensive Limited to Method of
flexible intrusive commu- last resort
nications
 aturalistic observation
‡ involves observing and recording the
variables of interest in the natural
environment without interference or
manipulation by the experimenter.
 Classic Aims of aturalistic
‘bservation
‡   (Central tendencies of children
of an age, gender, culture)
‡ " (Relationships among
behavioral variables)
‡ #   (Relationships among
behavior and settings)
‡ $   (Focus on individual
differences among children)
 ‘bservation
ë
 
1. Can't do an experiment because you can't
manipulate the predictor variable. Ex: You can't
manipulate participants' gender or age.
2. Can't ethically do an experiment because you
can't ethically manipulate the predictor variable
(e.g., illness, poverty)
3. Want to describe or predict behavior
4. Useful for describing behavior and for
suggesting causal hypotheses that could be
tested in experiments.
1. Scientific observation should be
‡ a. ‘bjective: "just the facts"

‡ b. Systematically record data to avoid

memory biases and errors, such as
those caused by the availability
heuristic
‡ c. Use good, fair sample if you are
going to generalize your results.
 Difficulties with observation--It
can sometimes be:

a. Impossible: Can we observe thoughts?

b. Impractical: Do you want to wait to
observe a robbery?
c. Unethical: How does observation differ
from spying?
Undisguised ‘bservation

‡ ‘bserver follows the group around

‡ Following the inner working of a
political campaign
‡ May be some reactivity
 ‘



Disguised versus Undisguised
‘bservation
‡ In 

, the respondents are
unaware that they are being observed. Disguise
may be accomplished by using one-way mirrors,
hidden cameras, or inconspicuous mechanical
devices. ‘bservers may be disguised as
shoppers or sales clerks.

‡ In 


, the respondents
are aware that they are under observation.
 ‘



Structured versus Unstructured
‘bservation
‡ For 

, the researcher
specifies in detail what is to be observed and
how the measurements are to be recorded, e.g.,
an auditor performing inventory analysis in a
store.

‡ In 


, the observer
monitors all aspects of the phenomenon that
seem relevant to the problem at hand, e.g.,
observing children playing with new toys.
 ‘



atural versus Contrived ‘bservation

‡ 

involves observing
behavior as it takes places in the environment.
For example, one could observe the behavior of
respondents eating fast food in Burger King.

‡ In 


, respondents'
behavior is observed in an artificial environment,
such as a test kitchen.
aturalistic ‘bservation as a field method involves the
following steps:

1. Establish objectives and information requirements. Should the

coverage be in breadth or in depth? It is extremely important at
this stage to find out what will happen to the end-product of this
process, and therefore to tailor the whole process to the
requirements of those who will receive the results.
2. Gain contacts and especially their co-operation with the
process of aturalistic ‘bservation that you intend to carry out.
Establish the times, places, and people who will be observed.
ote that in some countries, the law may prohibit you from
taking video films of people without their explicit written
consent.
3. Decide on the recording technique you will use. Will you rely
on hand-written notes (traditional), audio, or video and audio
records? ote that the more complete your record, the longer it
takes to analyse. It is useful to be able to make some kind of
first-cut analysis during observation
4. Analyse, summarise, and report in relation to the objectives set
out at the start.
 Techniques of ‘bservation
Õ 
‡ Focus on charting changes, consistency across
continuous segments of time
%  & 
‡ Focus on ongoing behavior for set amount of time
#
" 

‡ Focus on a specific class of events that occur
" 

‡ Focus on rates of discrete events/behaviors E.g.
Bergin, Ford, Hess (1993) (each person sampled for
a set period of time)
$
" 

(cycle through the group one by one across time rather
than try to code whole group simultaneously)