BASIC PRINCIPLES OF WELDING

http://www.aussieweld.com.au/arcwelding/page3/page3.htm

If your were to take two ice cubes from the refrigerator, the outer surfaces
under the heat of the day will begin to melt to ice water. Place the two wet
cubes one on top of the other back in the refrigerator and within a short
time the two cubes are welded together to form one block of ice. The
addition of heat has melted portion of the two parts to be joined and they
both cool down to one structure, the melted section becoming an intimate
part of the bond. (Fig.1)
On the other hand, in the glueing of two cubes of wood, the wood forms no part
of the bond and adhesion is achieved by the strength and intimate contract of the
glue with the two abutting surfaces

While some specialized processes may offer slight variants, the generally
accepted term of welding, particularly as it applies to the oxyacetylene and arc
processes, implies a fusion weld wherein the base materials being joined are
melted at the abutting faces and become all or part of the weld. In some cases
welds are made using the oxyacetylene, carbon arc or argon arc processes,
where only the base material melts to form the weld. In other instances a filler
rod or compatible material is added to the joint and this occurs in the case of the
manual stick electrode arc weld. here the electrode is consumed in the process
and the molten metal added to the joint to form, along with the melted surfaces
of the base material, the solidified mixture which is the weld metal.

You will appreciate that this is a different process to soldering and brazing, where
a metallic cement melting at a lower temperature than the parts being joined
flows and solidifies in intimate contact with the components to form a bond.
These processes of lower heat input are more akin to the glue joint in wood
mentioned above. (Fig. 2)

A necessary part of a welding process is a source of intense heat sufficient to

melt the material being joined (and any filler metals added) and the
oxyacetylene and metallic arc processes are the most commonly employed. The
very low temperature soldering process can be achieved with a soldering iron,
while the high temperature soldering or brazing process using silver or copper
alloys may be carried out with air or oxy-fuel gas combinations, or carbon arc
torches. The fuel gases commonly available in Australia are acetylene, liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG) and, in some areas, Natural Gas.
The blacksmith's forge weld involves both heat and pressure. Here a fusion weld
is not involved, but the material are heated into the plastic range and under the
influence of the applied pressure (hammering), the hot working of the metal
parts together ensures an intimate bond with a re-crystallization into one
homogeneous mass. (Fig. 3). Resistance spot welding is a modern
electromechanical version of the blacksmith's forge weld.
SOME ELEMENTARY ASPECTS OF ELECTRICITY

As we shall be using some technical terms in everyday discussion of arc

welding, we should know basically to what these terms refer. In
considering elementary electricity, it is sometimes simplified if we use a
water system analogy.

Imagine a water pump with a closed pipe circuit including a tap. (Fig 4). The pump
can be working and a water pressure is established but no water will flow through
the pipe until the tap is turned on to allow a path for the water to flow through.
With the tap "on", the rate of water flow or current (gallons per minute) will
depend on the pressure provided by the pump and the size of the water conductor
or pipe. A small pipe inserted into the system will restrict the rate of water flow. If
we want a larger current to flow we either have to increase the pressure applied
by the pump or increase the size of the pipe. In the electrical circuit shown the
"pump" or source of electrical pressure is a battery. The "pipe" becomes an
electrical conductor (wire) and the "tap" that provides the path for turning on or
off the flow is a switch. A smaller wire offering a higher resistance to current flow
is included in the circuit which would be typical of the cigarette lighter circuit in
your car.
Note the similarity between the two systems. However while water can run to waste,
there must always be a complete closed circuit for electrical current to flow.

Before the switch is closed (tap opened) to allow the current flow, the "head of
electricity", or available electrical pressure is nominated in open circuit volts. (You will
note this on the machine nameplate for various welding current ranges). Our "240
volt" and "440 volt" power supplies indicate the open circuit voltage or available
electrical pressure of the mains.
Once the circuit is closed then electric current will flow. This rate of flow is measured
in amperes or, as it is more commonly termed, amps. The size of the current is
determined both by the voltage (pressure) and the size of the conductor or its
resistance to flow, which is measured in ohms. Some materials are good conductors
and offer little resistance to current flow (such as copper and aluminium). Others are
mediocre conductors of electricity and offer greater resistance to current flow (steel).
Still others are poor conductors and are termed resistors. Very bad or "non
conductors" are called insulators (bakelite, fiberglass etc.).

The resistance to flow of electric current shows its presence in the form of heat. We
use this heat generated by resistance principle for our electric heating elements in
stoves and radiators etc., while the remainder of the high conductivity copper circuit
operates within safe heat limits. If the current flow increases to a stage where wiring
could overheat to a dangerous level, the fuse, a purposely smaller section of wire
conductor designed to melt when it receives an overload current, will melt or fuse and
break the circuit.
From our point of view the voltage is only really important in as much as sufficient
"pressure" is required to make the current flow through a circuit. In any circuit of a
given resistance, it is the current which primarily determines the amount of heat
generated. Thus it is very important that, while we can use small cables on the high
voltage low amperage (primary) side of our AC arc welder, we must have lower
resistance heavy conductors for the high amperage low voltage (secondary) welding
circuit or the leads will overheat. Similarly a secondary lead which is too long or too
small will cause such a drop in voltage that it can no longer maintain a stable current
across the arc between the electrode and the work.

What are AC and DC?

"DC" stands for direct current in which the current flows in the one direction
constantly throughout the circuit. One side of the power source is nominated as the
positive (+) pole and the other as the negative (-) pole. An automotive battery or dry
cell gives DC.

In "AC" or alternating current the current periodically reverses its direction along the
conductor, i.e. one fraction of a second the right-hand terminal is "negative", the next
fraction of a second it is "positive". In 50 Hertz AC current, such as is commonly used
in Australia, this change from + to - to + occurs as a cyclic variation 50 times a
second, the current thus changing direction of flow 100 times a second. See Fig. 5.
What is an arc?
Dry air is a good insulator and it requires a very high voltage (such as used with a
spark plug) to jump an air gap. For both practical and safety reasons, we must use a
relatively low voltage in our welding circuit. It we touch an electrode on to the work
and then withdraw it slightly, the initial heat of the high current flow on touching will
vaporise some of the core wire and coating materials so that a gaseous high
resistance conductor is established between the electrode tip and the work. This short
length of high resistance high current flow generates extreme heat sufficient to melt
both the base material beneath and the electrode above. This is the modern electric
arc used in welding.
In "AC" or alternating current the current periodically reverses its direction along the
conductor, i.e. one fraction of a second the right-hand terminal is "negative", the next
fraction of a second it is "positive". In 50 Hertz AC current, such as is commonly used
in Australia, this change from + to - to + occurs as a cyclic variation 50 times a
second, the current thus changing direction of flow 100 times a second. See Fig. 5.

As seen in Fig. 5 the current flow actually momentarily drops to zero 100 times a
second, requiring a highly conductive arc atmosphere for the re-establishment of the
arc on AC.

Some electrodes, because of their type of coating, will not generate sufficient current
carrying ions to maintain a stable arc at say 45 volts and require a higher pressure
circuit of say80volts. Others fail to remain stable on AC at a safe voltage (80 open
circuit volts) and require DC current. Thus, both AC and DC welding machines are
used for the manual metal-arc welding process (MMAW).

Some electrodes, because of their type of coating, will not generate sufficient current
carrying ions to maintain a stable arc at say 45 volts and require a higher pressure
circuit of say80volts. Others fail to remain stable on AC at a safe voltage (80 open
circuit volts) and require DC current. Thus, both AC and DC welding machines are
used for the manual metal-arc welding process (MMAW).