HUMAN GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT

Maria Perpetua Arcilla- Serapio

Bulacan State University
Sarmiento Campus
 OVERVIEW OF THE TEACHING AND
LEARNING PROCESS
 Instruction is a crucial factor in the teaching- learning process.

 For that matter, the teacher assumes the responsibility of bringing

out the best in the individual transformation in the different phases
of his development.

 The success of such efforts however, is determined not only by his

mastery of the subject and efficient use of instructional materials but
also through understanding of the aspects of human growth and
development.

 The teacher’s competence is manifested in his ability to identify the

needs of the child, recognize his potentials, harness them, and adjust
instruction according to the child’s abilities.

 It is therefore imperative that the teacher recognize uniqueness of an

individual even as he acquires knowledge of learning his general
characteristics if learning is to be successful and the aim of education
is to be met.
 IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN GROWTH,
DEVELOPMENT, AND LEARNING
 Life is a changing process.
 From conception to the moment of death, human beings undergo many
complex processes of development.
 Through life, people have the potential to grow, to change, and to develop.

 Human development is the scientific study of the quantitative and

qualitative ways by which people change over time.

 Growth is often referred to as quantitative change.

 The child increases in height and weight, and changes in proportion as he
progresses toward maturity.
 These changes in the body and any of its parts are known as physical
growth.

 Development or qualitative changes are changes in the number or amount

of something, such as height, weight, or size of vocabulary.

 Development is a progressive series of changes that occur as a result of

maturation and experience.
 This means that development does not consists merely of adding inches too
one’s height or of improving one’s ability. Instead, it is a complex
process of integrating many structures and functions.
 IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN GROWTH,
DEVELOPMENT, AND LEARNING
 Qualitative changes are changes in kind, structure, or, organization, such as
changes in the way the mind works.

 There are two processes in development that simultaneously take place

through life—growth or evolution and atrophy or involution (a
wasting away, or the failure to grow because of insufficient nutrition).

 Both begin at conception and end at death.

 In the early years, growth predominates, even though atrophic changes
occur as early as the early embryonic life.
 In the latter part of life, atrophy predominates, though growth does not
stop; hair continues to grow, a cell continues to be replaced. With aging,
some parts of the body and mind change more than the others.

 The distinction between quantitative and qualitative change can be

seen in the area of memory development.
 Example: when Jenny was four years old, she could recall only three objects out
of a group she had seen a few minutes before; now at 7, she recall seven
objects.
 Her memory has undergone a quantitative change, that is, an increase in how much
she can remember.
 She has also experienced a qualitative change in memory, since she wants to
remember into categories to help her recall them (P.H. Miller, 1983 as cited by
Papalia, 1989).
 IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN GROWTH,
DEVELOPMENT, AND LEARNING

 Maturation generally refers to a natural process of growing up ascribed

to heredity.

 It is biological process that accounts for age-related changes in

growth and development and requires favorable support from
the environment to occur.

 Learning is the aspect of development that connotes modification of behavior

that results from practice and experience.

 Developmental tasks are expectations that arise during a defined period of

life.
 The successful performance of this task indicates a forward thrust
in growth development.
 For example, learning the fundamentals of reading, writing, and
arithmetic are developmental tasks in the elementary school years.

 The development of the individual at any given time is the result of both
maturation of his innate potentialities (heredity) and whatever
modifications there may be of these as a result of environmental
influences.
 Growth and development result from an interaction of maturation and
learning in making the individual what he is at a given time.
 ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT
 1. Physical development.
 Changes in the body, brain, sensory, capacities and motor skills are all part of physical
development, and they exert a major influence on both intellect and personality.

 For example, much of an infant’s knowledge of the world comes from the senses and from
motor activity. In late adulthood, physical changes in the brain, as in Alzheimer’s disease
can result in loss of brain memory for recent events and in personality
deterioration.

 2. Intellectual development.
 Changes in a wide variety of mental abilities such as learning, memory, reasoning,
thinking, and facility with language, are aspects of intellectual
development. These changes are closely related to both the motor and emotional
aspects of development.

 3. Personality and social development.

 Personality is he unique way in which each person deals with the world, expresses in
emotions, and gets along with others, and social development is that which affects
both the physical and cognitive aspects functioning.

 4. Moral Development.
 This is to cause to become gradually aware of the distinction between right or wrong in
conduct.

 5. Spiritual development.
 This is an evolved refinement of thought and feeling; of the spirit or soul as distinguish
from the body or material matters. A consciousness of religion or the church
that is held sacred.
 RESEARCH METHOD
 Researchers in different branches of the physical and
social sciences use different methods.

 But the term scientific method refers to certain,

underlying principles that characterize inquiry
in any field; careful observation and recording of
data; testing of alternative hypotheses, or
different explanations for the data; and
widespread public dissemination of findings and
conclusions so that other observers can learn
from analyze, repeat, and build on the results.

 Development lists use a variety of non-experimental

and experimental research methods and designs
for data collection when they observe people,
either going about their daily lives or in special,
planned situations.
 RESEARCH METHOD
 1. Non experimental Method
 a. Case studies
 b. Naturalistic observations
 c. Clinical studies
 d. Correlational studies

 Case Studies
 Case studies are studies of a single case, or individual life.
 Earliest information about an infant’s development comes from baby
biographies, journals kept by parents to record changes in the development of
children.

 Baby biographies offer useful, in- depth information, allowing

developmentalists to glimpse personalities as they could in no other
way.
 Both baby biographies and other case studies have several shortcomings from a
scientific point of view.
 Often, they only record behavior; they do not explain it, and if they do, there
is no way to test the validity of the explanations.
 Also, they may suffer from”observer bias” in which the recorder emphasizes
some aspects of a person’s development and gives short shrift to others.
 And while biographies may tell a great deal about individuals, it is
questionable how such information applies to people in general.
 RESEARCH METHOD
 Naturalistic Observations

 In naturalistic observation, researchers observe and record people’s

behavior in their real- life settings (such as preschools or nursing
homes), making no effort to manipulate the environment or to alter
behavior.

 One use of such studies is gain normative information about the

occurrence of certain behaviors.

 One type of naturalistic observation is time sampling a technique used

to observe the occurrence of a particular type of behavior (such as
aggression, babbling, or crying) at intervals throughout a given
period of time.

 One researcher used this method to study the ways infants and their
parents act with each other.

 Naturalistic studies do not attempt to explain behavior or to determine

its causes and effects.

 It is also important to realize that the very presence of an observer can

alter the behavior being observed. to get around this problem, observers
sometimes station themselves behind one way mirrors or try to
“blend in” unobtrusively with the background.
 CLINICAL STUDIES
 The clinical method combines observation with flexible, individualized
questioning.
 It differs from naturalistic observation in that the subject is not
necessarily in a natural setting, and in that the researcher
participates in the study situation.

 Piaget developed this method to find out how children think. He explored
individual children’s responses to his questions by asking them follow-
up questions to gain insight into the ways their minds worked.
 By this technique, he discovered that a typical 4-year old believed
that pennies or flowers were more numerous when arranged in
a line than when heaped or piled up.

 This open-ended method is quite different from standardized testing
techniques, which are intended to make the testing situation as similar
as possible for all subjects.
 The clinical method is tailor- made for each person; no two individuals are
questioned in exactly the same way.
 With the clinical method, an experimenter interesting, can use language
that a particular individual understands, and can even change to rhe
language that a child is using spontaneously.

 The main drawback of the clilnical method is that it depends upon the
interviewer’s ability to ask the right questions and to draw the right
conclusions.
 The only check on the method is to provide it to a great number of
investigators who have varying points of view and then see whether or not
their results corroborate one another.
 INTERVIEW METHOD
 In the interview method, instead of being observed people
are asked directly to state their attitudes or opinions or to
relate aspects of their life histories.

 By interviewing large numbers of people, investigators get

a broad picture of what the people being interviewed say
they believe or do or did.

 Studies using this method have focused on parent-child

relationships, on sexual activities, on occupational
aspirations, and on life in general.

 The problem with relying on interviews alone for

information is that the memory and accuracy of
interviewees are often faulty.

 Some subjects forget when and how certain events actually

took place, and others distort their replies to make them
more acceptable to the interviewers or to themselves.
 CORRELATIONAL STUDIES

 Correlational studies show the direction and

magnitude of a relationship between variables,
that is, they can tell us whether two variables are
related positively (that is, whether both increase
and decrease together) or negatively (whether as
both is increase, or is decrease together) or
negatively (whether as one increases, the other
decreases together) and to what degree.
 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

 An experiment is a rigorously controlled procedure in which the investigator, called the

experimenter, manipulates variables to determine how one affects another.

 Scientific experiments must be conducted and reported in such a way that another investigator
can replicate (repeat) them to verify the results and conclusions.

 To conduct an experiment, two types of groups of subjects are needed: one or more experimental
groups and one or more control groups.

 The experimental group is composed of people who will be exposed to experimental manipulation
or treatment (such as being shown in prosocial television programs).

 Following exposure, the effect of treatment on the dependent variable is measured one or more
times.

 The control group is composed of people who are similar to the experimental group but who do not
receive the treatment whose effects we want to measure.

 If the experimental results do show a causal relationship between two variables, how do we know
that the relationship is true generally, and not just for the people who are subjects of the
experiment?

 And some third factor? The answers hinge on careful selection of subjects and on how we assign
them to experimental and control groups.
 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
 First, make sure that the sample (the group of subjects chosen for the
experiment) is representative of the entire population under study (that is, of
all the members of the larger group from which the sample is taken).

 Only if the sample is representative can we generalize the results of the

experiment to the population as a whole.

 Experimenters ensure representatives by random sampling.

 A sample is a random sample if each member of the population has an equal

chance of being selected.

 For example, if we want a sample of all the students in a human growth and
development class, we might put all their names into a hat or any container,
and then draw out the numbers of names we want.

 Second, randomly assign these subjects to experimental and control groups.

 If the sample is large enough, differences in such factors as age, sex, race, IQ
that the groups are as nearly distributed so that the groups are as nearly alike
as possible in every respect except for the independent variables ( that is,
prevents them from affecting the results) so that the results of our experiment
will reflect only the impact of the independent variable and some other factors.
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEARNER

 Development of the learner undergoes a complicated process, a pattern of

growth that is unique in every individual.

 On this note, it is imperative that a thorough understanding of the principles of

development be considered to effect a successful transformation of the learner.

 Along with the normative sequence that includes physical, mental, motor and
even socio-emotional that a child goes through in the process of growth, the
teacher tries to focus attention to the patterns of behaviour that make for
individual differences evident even in the child’s early foundations.

 For this reason, a successful future is said to hinge on how well an individual
is able to adjust to life and ho powerful he is in getting rid of the constraints or
hazards that go with development.

 These hazards may accrue from his physical inadequate, psychological

problems and even environmental influences.

 One aspect of development will require the learner to be aware of the social
expectations or development tasks.

 At any given time, the learner copes with meeting such challenges and making
every phase of his development meaningful.
 PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

 1. Normative sequence-
 This is physical, motor, mental, and socio-emotional
development which takes place in certain orders even
though speed varies from one individual to another.

 2. Differentiation and integration-

 Global patterns of behaviour are broken into smaller ones,
and smaller ones are put together into larger ones.

 3. Developmental direction-
 Growth and development spreads over the body from head
to foot (cephalo- caudal law) and spreads
outward from the central axis of the body to the
extremities ( proximodistal law).

 4. Optimal tendency-
 The organism grows as though seeking a target to be
reached by using any available resources.
 PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

 5.Development-
 This is a product of maturation and learning.
 In phylogenetic functions, functions which are common to the human
race such as creeping, sitting, standing or walking, development
comes from maturation.
 In ontogenetic functions, e.g. those that are specific to the individual,
such as writing, driving, dancing, learning in the form of training is
essential.

 6. Early foundations are critical-

 Attitudes, habits, and patterns of behaviour establish during the early
yeas determine to a large extent how successfully individuals will
adjust to life as they grow old.

 7. All individuals are different.

 Individual differences are significant because they are responsible for
individuality in personality make-up.
 8. Each phase of development has characteristic behaviour.
 The patterns of behaviour are marked by period of equilibrium and
period of disequilibrium.
 PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

 9. Each phase of development has hazards.

 There is simple evidence that each phase of development has associated
with it certain developmental hazards whether physical, psychological, or
environmental.

 10. Development is aided by stimulation.

 This is directly encouraging the individuals to use an ability which is in the
process of developing.

 11. Growth is unique.

 Some functions that result from growth are unique to species.

 12. There are social expectations for every stage of development.

 Havighurst has labelled the social expectations as developmental tasks.
Developmental tasks are tasks which arise at or about certain period in the
life of an individual.

 13. The various aspects of development are integrated.

 It is only when considered in relation to others aspects that any phase of
development becomes meaningful.
 PRINCIPLES OF MATURATION

 1. Principle of directionality.
 Development governed by maturation has a clear
direction. In the case of fatal development, there are two
directions: cephalo-caudal and proximodistal.

 2. Principle of functional asymmetry.

 Humans have a tendency to develop asymmetrically.
For example, handedness. Everyone has a preferred side,
usually the right. We write with the hand on the preferred
side, throw the ball with the hand, kick with the feet on
that side, and so on. Accompanying such motor asymmetry.
If you are left handed you are right-brained. One half of the
brain is dominant over the other ball.

 3. Principle of self-regulating fluctuation.

 Development does not proceed at the same even pace
along all fronts simultaneously. For example, the child does
not usually begin talking extensively until he has learned
to walk.
 FACTOR THAT INFLUENCE THE GROWTH
AND DEVELOPMENT

 Heredity is the direction and pattern given by the

genes to growth and development.

 It is the transmission of genetic characteristics from the

parents to the offspring –one of the two general factors that
influence human growth and development.

 The first important happening at the time of conception is

the determination of the newly created individual’s
hereditary endowment.

 At the conception, each normal human being receives 23

chromosomes from the mother and 23 from the father.
These align into 23-pair of chromosomes-22 pairs of auto
chromosomes. Chromosomes carry the genes that
determine inherited characteristics.
 PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
Principle Focus Application-
Classroom Situation

1. The development of an
organism is the result of the
interaction between heredity
(nature) and environment
(nurture)
 The process of heredity and
environment are
interdependent and
complimentary. Neither
appears to be dominant.
 Height while largely
determined by heredity is also
affected to an extent by
nutrition.
Teachers to take note or consider
the family background of the child
as well as the environment where
he/she was born or grew up to
better understand him/her
especially his/her behavior.

1. Growth is sequential  Growth follows an orderly Teachers to know in what stage in a

sequence which in general is
the same for all individuals.
 All aspects of development be
it in language, motor, social,
occur sequentially
particular aspect of growth the
child is so he/she would know what
to expect and also what to do to
prepare the child for the next stage
of development.
PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Principle Focus Application-

Classroom Situation

1. Each stage of development has  Characteristic traits vary at
characteristic traits each stage of development
 Traits become more complex
as the child gets older.
Knowledge of characteristic traits at
different stages can be considerable
value for teachers in choosing the
appropriate activities as well as the
methods of teaching.

1. Maturation or readiness  Definite degrees of maturity Knowledge of characteristic traits at

should precede certain types are prerequisite to various different stages can be of
of learning types of learning considerable value for teachers in
choosing the appropriate activities
as well as the methods of teaching.
 PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
Principle
1. The body tends to maintain a
state of equilibrium called
homeostasis
2. Development rates vary
3. Growth is patterned
Focus
 There is a wisdom of the body.
Strives to preserve a constant
internal environment despite
changing conditions, whether
internal or external.
 The speed of development is
not even
 Each part of the body has its
own particular rate of growth
 Children tend to inherit the
physique of their parents
 There are no two identical
growth patterns
 Each child has his/her own
characteristic rate
Application-
Classroom Situation
Teacher to be a keen observer so
he/she can do something when
signs of uneasiness or boredom on
the part of the students is shown or
exhibited, while he/she is teaching
or observing the students to
something.
Teacher to understand that girls
mature earlier than boys. Growth
rate maybe retarded by illness and
certain types of deprivation such as
prolonged poor nutrition.
Children should never be compared
unless their rate and pattern of
growth have been taken into
account.
 THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
 All theories of human development have had an effect upon decisions
made in research, in classroom and parental management.

 They are not necessarily contradictory or entirely exclusive. All are

concerned with the interaction of the organism and his/her
environment.

 They do tend to place an emphasis on certain concepts and certain

facets of behavior.

 They all contain elements of truth.

 It is suggested that beginning students / teachers become well

acquainted with varied points of view in child development early so
that they may have enough information to guide them in future
decisions, either personal or professional (that they make) in working
children.
THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

 These theories differ in many respects

 They make different assumptions about children

and the developmental process.

 They rely on different research methods to test

assumptions and hypothesis.

 They emphasize different aspects of development.

 THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY –
SIGMUND FREUD
 Freud believes that all human beings pass through a series of
psychosexual stages.

 Each stage is dominated by the development of sensitivity in a

particular erogenous or pleasure giving spot in the body.

 Each stage poses for individuals a unique conflict that they must
resolve before they go to the next higher stage.

 If individuals are unsuccessful in resolving the conflict, the

resulting frustration become chronic and remains a central
feature of their psychological make-up.

 Individuals may become so addicted to the pleasure of a given

stage that they are unwilling to move to the later stages. Fixation
– tendency to stay at a particular stage.
 PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES

Stage Age Range Characteristics

1. Oral Birth to 1 year  Center of pleasure is the
mouth
 Infants derive much pleasure
in sucking (fingers, toes,
nipples),chewing, spitting and
biting.
 Infants learn about their
environment by such activities
involving the mouth.
 When an infant experiences
frustration in not being able to
meet needs through oral
activities, the needs may
continue to resurface at a later
period in life in such forms as
eating as smoking.
 PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES

Stage Age Range Characteristics

1. Anal 1-3 years  Attention is directed to the
anal region as the sphincter
muscles begin to mature
 Voluntary defecation become
the primary method of
gratifying the sex instinct
 Parents put emphasis to toilet
training
 Parents over attention or lack
of attention to children’s toilet
training maybe the cause of
problems associated with
fixation of development
 PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
Stage Age Range Characteristics
3. Phallic 3-6 years  Freud’s view was the four-
year-old children have
matured to the point that their
genitals have become an
interesting and sensitive area
of the body.
 Children derive pleasure from
activities associated with
stroking and manipulating
their sex organs
 Stage where boys experience
the state of Oedipus complex
(young boys experience rivalry
with their father for their
mother’s attention and
affections and regards their
father as a sex rival) and girls
experience the state of Electra
complex (sees mother as a
rival for father’s attention)
 PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
Stage Age Range Characteristics
1. Latency 6-12 years  Child sex instincts are relatively calm
and continue until puberty
 Focus of child is on school work and
vigorous play that consume most of
his physical and psychic energy
 Many of the disturbing and
conflicting feelings of children are
buried in the subconscious mind
2. Genital 12 years onwards  Longest stage and lasts from
puberty to old age
 Aim of the sex instinct is
reproduction
 Oedipus / Electra feelings are
reactivated and directed toward
other persons of the opposite sex
 Provided that strong fixations at
earlier stages have not taken place,
dependence on parents is overcome
and the young person is on the way
to establishing a satisfying life of his
own.
 THE PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY –
ERIK ERIKSON
 People progress through a series of eight stages

 Each stage is characterized by a “conflict of crisis” that the

individual must successfully resolve in order to develop in a
healthy direction.

 Focus is an important socio-cultural determinants of

human development and less on the sex instinct.

 An Individual who fails to resolve one or more of the life

crisis is almost certain to encounter problems to resolve
one or more of the life crisis is almost certain to encounter
problems in the succeeding stages of development or in the
future.
 THE PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY –
ERIK ERIKSON
Stage Age Characteristics
1. Trust vs. Birth to 1 year Whether children come to trust or mistrust themselves and other
Mistrust people depends on their early experiences
 Infants are met, cuddled, fondled  When a child is
and shown genuine affection chaotic,
evolve a sense of a world as safe unpredictable and
and dependable place rejecting as brought
about by his
environment, he
approaches the
world with fear and
suspicion
2. Autonomy vs. 1-3 years As children begin to walk, climb, etc., a new conflict confronts them
Shame and that is whether to assert their will or not.
Doubt  When parents are patient,  When children are
cooperative, encouraging, not allowed such
children acquire a sense of freedom and are
independence and competence over-protected, they
develop an excessive
sense shame and
doubt.
 THE PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY –
ERIK ERIKSON
Stage Age Characteristics
3. Initiative vs. Guilt 3-6 years The repertoire of motor and mental abilities and greatly
expands
The healthy child learns to broaden his skills to cooperate and
to lead as well as to follow
 Parents who give their  Parents who curtail this
children freedom to do freedom are giving
things like running, children a sense of
riding, skating, etc., are themselves as nuisances
allowing them to develop and inept intruders in the
initiative. adult world. Rather than
being active they may
become passive.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority 6-12 yrs Elementary years – children concerned with how things
work and how they are made.
Children learn to win recognition by being productive.
Work becomes pleasurable and they learn to persevere.

 Parents, teachers who  Those who ignore,

support, rewards and rebuff, deride children’s
praise children are effort are strengthening
encouraging industry feelings of inferiority.
 THE PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY –
ERIK ERIKSON
Stage
5. Industry vs. Role Confusion
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
Age Characteristics
12-20 yrs It is reached at the time of puberty when childhood is left
behind and the transmission to adulthood begins. Individual has
to develop an integral and coherent sense of self. He seeks
answers to the question “Who am I”.
 To find an identity,  When the adolescent
adolescents try on many fails to develop a
new roles as they grope centered identity he/she
with romantic becomes trapped in
involvement, vocational either role confusion a
choice and adult statuses “negative identity”. Role
confusion implies
uncertainty of
appropriate behavior.
20-40 yrs As Erikson views intimacy, it is capacity to reach out and make
contact with other people and to fuse one’s identity with that of
others. Capable of experiencing the intimacy of enduring
friendship or marriage.
 Central to intimacy is the  Fear of self-
ability to share with and abandonment results in a
care about another feeling of isolation.
person without fear of
losing oneself in the
process
 THE PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY –
ERIK ERIKSON
Stage Age Characteristics
6. Generativity vs. 40-65 yrs Individual is able to work productivity and creativity.
Stagnation
 Generativity –  Stagnation –
Parental condition in which
responsibility, individuals are
interest in producing preoccupied with
and guiding the next their material
generation. Entails possessions or
selflessness physical well-being.
7. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Old Age to death Stage of facing reality, recognizing and accepting it.
Individuals take stock of the years that have gone
before.

 Some feel a sense of  Others experience

satisfaction with the
accomplishment.
despair, the feeling
that the time is too
short for an attempt
to start another life
and to try out
alternative roads to
integrity.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
JEAN PIAGET

 Major contributor – Jean Piaget, a Swiss scholar who

studied children’s intellectual development during the
1920’s

 Children are neither driven by undesirable instincts nor

molded by environmental influences

 Piaget and followers view children as constructivists, that

is, as curious active explorers who respond to the
environment according to their understanding of it’s
essential features.

 Piaget divided intellectual development into four major

periods
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
JEAN PIAGET
 Sensorimotor – (birth to two years)

 Infants use sensory and motor capabilities to explore and

gain a basic understanding of the environment

 At birth they have only innate reflexes with which to

engage the world. By the end of the sensorimotor period,
they are capable of complex sensorimotor coordination.

 Infants learn that objects continue to exist when they are

out of sight (object permanence) and begin to internalize
behavioral schemata to produce images of mental schemata.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
JEAN PIAGET
 Preoperational (two or seven years)

 Children use symbolism images and language) to

represent and understand various aspects of the
environment.

 Thought is egocentric, meaning that children think

everyone sees the world in much the same way that they
do.

 Children become imaginative in their play activities.

They gradually begin to recognize that other people
may not always perceive the world as they do.
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
JEAN PIAGET
 Concrete Operations (seven to eleven years)

 Children are no longer fooled by appearances. By relying on

cognitive operations, they understand the basic properties
of and relations among objects and events in the everyday
world.

 Able to solve concrete (hands-on) problem in logical fashion.

 Understand laws of conservation and are able to classify and

seriate. Understands reversibility.

 Becoming much more proficient at inferring motives by

observing others’ behavior and the circumstances in which it
occurs.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
JEAN PIAGET
 Formal Operations (eleven years and beyond)

 Able to solve abstract problems in logical fashion

 Becomes more scientific in thinking

 No longer is logical thinking limited to the concrete or the

observable. Children enjoy pondering hypothetical issues
and as a result may become rather idealistic.

 Capable of systematic, deductive reasoning that permits them

to consider may possible solutions to a problem and pick the
correct answer.
 SOCIOHISTORIC -
LEV SEMANOVICH VYGOTSKY
 Russian psychologist who highly stressed the importance of the social
environment to development

 Social interaction is the way in which children develop increasingly more complex
thinking. Children gin knowledge and skills through “shared experiences”
between themselves and adults or older peers.

 Cognitive development is concerned as dependent on social mediation. The child is

socially dependent at the beginning of this cognitive life and becomes increasingly
independent on his thinking through many experiences in which adults or older
peers help.

 The child acquires new skills and information with the zone of proximal
development (ZPD), the level at which a child finds a task too difficult to complete
alone, but which he can accomplish with the assistance or support of an adult or
older peer.

 This story suggest that, in addition to providing a stimulating environment, early

childhood educators need to promote discovery, explaining and providing
suggestions to suit each child’s zone of proximal development.
 THE LEARNING THEORY (BEHAVIORISM)
JOHN WATSON
 John Watson proclaimed that he could take a dozen healthy infants and train
them to be whatever he chose – doctor, lawyer, beggar, and so on.

 Basic premise of Watson’s “behaviorism”

 That the mind of an infant is a “tabula rasa” and that learned

associations between stimuli and responses are the building
blocks of human development.

 Development does not proceed through series of stages.

 It is a continuous process marked by the gradual acquisition of new

and more sophisticated behavioral pattern, or habits.

 He believed that only the simplest of human reflexes (for example,

the sucking reflex) are inborn and that important behavioral
tendencies, including traits, talents, values and aspirations are
learned.
 THE LEARNING THEORY (BEHAVIORISM)
JOHN WATSON

 The behaviorists of the 1980’s are more moderate in their

values. They recognize that heredity and maturation play
meaningful roles in human development and that no
amount of prompting or environmental enrichment could
transform a severely retarded person into a lawyer or a
brain surgeon.

 However, these contemporary learning theorists believe

that biological factors merely place limits on what children
are capable of learning.

 To this day, theorists who favor the learning approach feel

that the most significant aspects of human behavior – those
habits and qualities that make us “human” – are learned.
THE MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG

 The moral development of each successive generation is of obvious

significance to society. Although moral standards may vary from
culture to culture, every society has devise rules that its
constituents must obey in order to remain members in good
standing.

 Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on Piaget’s studies of moral

development by making moral dilemmas that could be
appropriate for older children. Thus in 1963, he developed the
description of the three levels and six stages of moral reasoning.
THE MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG

 Stage 1:
 Punishment – Obedience Orientation
(toddler to 7)

 The physical consequence of an action determines

goodness or badness.
 Those in authority have superior power and
should be obeyed.
 Punishment should avoided by staying out of
trouble.
THE MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG

 Level One –
 Pre-conventional Morality (0-9 yrs)

 This is typical of children up to age nine.

 Called pre-conventional because young children
do not really understand the conventions or rules
of a society.
THE MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG

 Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation

(pre-school to school age)

 An action is judged to be right if it is

instrumental or satisfying one’s own needs or
involve an even exchange.
 Obeying rules should bring some sort of benefits
in return.
THE MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG

 . Level Two –
 Conventional Morality ( 9-20 yrs)

 Typical of nine to twenty years old)

 Called conventional since 9 to 20 year olds

conform to the convention of society because they
are rules of a society.
THE MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG

 . Stage 3: Good Boy – Nice Girl Orientation

 The right action is one that would be carried out
by someone whose behavior is likely to please or
impress others.

 Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation

 To maintain the social order, fixed rules must be
established and obeyed. It is essential to respect
authority.
THE MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG

 . Level Three –
 Post-conventional Morality(after age 20)

 This is usually reached only after age 20 and by

only a small proportion of adults.

 Called post-conventional level because the moral

principles that underlie the conventions of a
society are understood.
THE MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG

 . Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation

 Rules are needed to maintain the social
agreement at the same time the rights of the
individual should be protected.

 Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle

Orientation
 Moral decisions should be made in terms of self-
chosen ethical principles. Once principles are
chosen, they should be applied in consistent
ways.
 LEARNING

 A change in behavior resulting from the

interaction of the organism with its environment.

 Changes brought about by development is not

learning (ex. ability to stand)

 Involves relatively permanent change in behavior

or knowledge which is the result of experience or
practice.

 A process of acquiring, remembering, applying

skills, knowledge, attitudes and other models of
response.
 DIFFERENT PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN CLASSROOM
SITUATION

Principle Application in Classroom Situations

1. Learning by doing is more effective than just sittingLet the students have the feel of things through the
and listening. hands-on activities. (Ex. to learn how to use the
computer, a computer should be available for practice)
2. Concepts should be presented in varied/ different ways Teachers should be very creative, resourceful and
imaginative in teaching so as not to make the students as
well as themselves get bored. (Ex. If pictures were used in
teaching on a Monday, the next day the teacher may use
storytelling.)
3. Learning is aided by formulating and asking questions. Teaching is a two-way process. It’s not only the teachers
who will always do the talking and asking. Students
should be given a chance to do the same thing. (Ex. Any
question regarding the discussion?)
4. Effort is put forth when tasks are challenging In giving tasks to students, the teacher should consider
that the tasks are not too difficult nor too easy and simple
to do. (Ex. asking students to write a reaction paper is not
as challenging as when you ask the student to present or
interpret the story in a creative manner.)
5. The principle of readiness is related to the learner’s The learner must consider the student’s age in presenting
stage of development and their precious learning. certain content and in expecting certain cognitive
processes. (Ex. A third grader can deal with concrete
operations but cannot make inferences.)
 DIFFERENT PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN CLASSROOM
SITUATION

 Behavioral Learning Theories or

Associative Learning Theories

 Prefer to concentrate on actual behavior

 Conclusions based on observations of external

manifestations of learning

 Did not focus on any underlying changes that

may take place in the learner
 IVAN PAVLOV’S CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING

 Term classical means “in the established manner

 Individual learns when a previously neutral

stimulus is paired with an unconditioned
stimulus until the neutral stimulus evokes a
conditioned response
 IVAN PAVLOV’S CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING

 Features of Classical Conditioning

 Stimulus Generalization -
 a process by which the conditioned response
transfers to other stimuli that are similar to
the original conditioned stimulus (ex.. If a
pupil enters school for the first time and gets
terrified at the sign of a stern teacher, then that
pupil may transfer that fear to anxiety to
anything about school to another teacher, pupil,
book, building, etc.)

 If you observe that a student is nervous in your class,

try to discover what caused it; take steps to introduce
non-provoking stimuli with those that caused the
anxiety.
 IVAN PAVLOV’S CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING

 Features of Classical Conditioning

 Discrimination –
 a process by which one learns not to respond to
similar stimuli in an identical manner because of
previous experiences. (Ex. A pupil learning to
read might have serious difficulties if he could
not discriminate the letters p, b, and d, or
horizontal lines from vertical lines, left from
right)

 Stress to students the importance of being able to

distinguish things that seem alike but are different.
One can discriminate because of prior experiences.
Provide continued practice to be used in searching for
differences
 IVAN PAVLOV’S CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING

 Features of Classical Conditioning

 Extinction –
 the process by which a conditioned response is lost.
(Ex. If a student is always scolded by the teacher
for failing in the test, he/she will develop fear in
taking a test. But if in the succeeding tests,
he/she passed with flying colors and was praised
by the teacher, gradually the fear in taking a
test will be extinguished.)

 The teacher may change his/her style or pattern of

doing things so that there will be a change of behavior
or attitude on the part of the students.
 EDWARD THORNDIKE’S
CONNECTIONISM

 Term connectionism means learning by selecting

and connecting.

 Put more emphasis .on the response of the

organism not limiting himself to the association
between the stimulus and the response.

 Believed that all learning is explained by bonds

or connections that are formed between the
stimulus and response. These connections occur
mainly through trial and error.
 EDWARD THORNDIKE’S
CONNECTIONISM

 Law of Exercise –
 explains that any connection is strengthened
in proportion to the number of times it
occurs and in proportion to the average vigor
and duration of the connection. Practice
alone is not enough for improvement.

 Let students practice what they have learned.

Provide activities where students can show/
perform/ apply not only in school but out of school
as well what was learned in the classroom.
 EDWARD THORNDIKE’S
CONNECTIONISM

 Formulated the three major laws of learning

 Law of Readiness –
 readiness is an important condition in
learning. A learner may be satisfied or
frustrated depending on his/her stage of
readiness. The learner should be biologically
prepared.

 A child is ready to learn if he/she shows interest

/ sustained interest / improvement in
performance.
 EDWARD THORNDIKE’S
CONNECTIONISM

 Law of Effect –
 when an organism’s response is accompanied
or followed by a satisfactory state, the
strength of the connection is increased. If an
annoying stage accompanies or follows the
response, the strength of the connection is
decreased. Rewards, successes or positive
reinforcement further leaning, while
punishment, failure or negative experiences
hinder it.

 Teachers should consider individual differences.

Things said or done may have different effects on the
behavior of students.
 EDWARD THORNDIKE’S
CONNECTIONISM

 Law of Exercise –
 explains that any connection is strengthened
in proportion to the number of times it
occurs and in proportion to the average vigor
and duration of the connection. Practice
alone is not enough for improvement.

 Let students practice what they have learned.

Provide activities where students can show/
perform/ apply not only in school but out of school
as well what was learned in the classroom.
 EDWARD THORNDIKE’S
CONNECTIONISM

 Stressed the consequence of behavior in order to learn.

 Proved that reinforcement is a powerful tool in shaping and

controlling behavior in and out of the classroom.

 Emphasized the greater influence of the environment or

learning and behavior, that is either to reinforce or
eliminate.

 Reinforcer is a stimulus event that if it occurs in the proper

temporal relation with a response tends to maintain or
increase the strength of a response, stimulus-response
connection.
 Primary – related to basic needs. Ex. food
 Secondary – value of something is acquired when
associated with primary reinforce. Ex. money to
buy food.
 EDWARD THORNDIKE’S
CONNECTIONISM

 Reinforcement –
 not synonymous with reward. Psychologists use the
term “reward” and believed that reinforcement
becomes effective when applied to specific behavior.

 Schedules of Reinforcement
 1. Continuous – every time it occurs
 2. Intermittent – every now and then
 3. Ratio – after a set of response. Ex. for every 3 correct
responses
 4. Interval – after the first response made
following predetermined period of elapsed time

 Teachers may use pleasant or unpleasant consequences to

control the occurrence of behavior.
 ALBERT BANDURA’S SOCIAL
COGNITIVE LEARNING

 Called “observational learning’ or “social learning theory”.

 Learning takes place when one person observes and then
imitates the behavior of others.

 Models are classified as

 Real life – teachers, parents
 Symbolic – oral or written symbols (ex. books)
 Representational – presented through audio – visual
measures (ex. films)

 Importance of Models
 Observer may inquire new responses
 May strengthen or weaken every existing response
 May cause the reappearance of responses that we
apparently forgotten
 ALBERT BANDURA’S SOCIAL
COGNITIVE LEARNING
 Four Phases in Observational Learning

 1. Attention – mere exposure does not ensure acquisition of

behavior. Observer must attend and recognize the distinctive
features of the model’s response.

 2. Retention – reproduction of the desired behavior implies that

a student symbolically retains the observed behavior.

 3. Motor Reproduction Processes – after observation, have

students demonstrate as soon as possible. Correct behavior can be
reinforced, while incorrect ones are altered.

 4. Motivational Processes – although observer acquires and

retains ability to perform the modeled behavior, there will be no
overt performance unless conditions are favorable.

 Teachers should be aware of their behavior since children do not

do just what adults tell them to do but rather what they see
adults do.
 COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES

 Prefer to concentrate on analyzing cognitive

processes

 Believe in the non-observable behavior

 Define cognitive psychology as the study of

structures and components of information
processing.
 COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES

 1. Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory

 View – focused on the psychological field or life and space of an individual

 Life space of an individual consists of everything one needs to know about

a person in order to understand his/her behavior in a specific
psychological environment at a specific time.

 Life space concept – it is not always possible to draw accurate conclusions

simply by observing overt behavior. To understand behavior it is often
essential to be “subjective” in the sense that the observer must see things
from the subject’s point of view at a given moment.

 Of significance to education is his view of motivation by psychological

tensions produced by the interaction of a psychological self with a
psychological environment.

 In a classroom for instance, each individual has his/her own psychological

field apart from others. Teachers, therefore, must try to suit the goals and
activities of the lessons to the learner’s needs.
 WOLFGANG KOHLER’S PROBLEM
SOLVING THEORY
 Insight is the
 Capacity to discern the true nature of a situation
 Imaginative power to see unto and understand immediately

 Gaining insight is a gradual process of exploring, analyzing and restructuring

perceptions until a solution is arrived.

 The more intelligent a person and the more experience he has, the more
capable he will be able for gaining insight.

 Held that animals and human beings are capable of seeing relationships
between objects and events and act accordingly to achieve their needs.
They have the power of looking into relationships involved in a problem
and in coming up with a solution.

 His studies on apes led him to conclude that learning was a result of
insightful solutions, not blind trial and error.

 Teachers should assist students in gaining insights by giving / presenting

activities /situations to do so they will be able to solve their problems.
 DAVID AUSUBEL’S MEANINGFUL
LEARNING THEORY

 Meaningful learning is the acquisition of new

meaning. Two important ideas in the
definition.

 Material to be learned is potentially

meaningful

 Refers to the process by which students turn

potentially meaningful material into actual
meaningfulness.

 Meaningful learning occurs when the material

to be learned is related to what students
already know.
 DAVID AUSUBEL’S MEANINGFUL
LEARNING THEORY

 Two dimensions of learning processes:

 The first relates to the two ways by which knowledge to be learned is

made available to the learner:

 Meaningful Reception Learning -

 new logically, organized material is presented in final form and
the learner relates it to his / her existing .

 The second dimension relates to the two ways by which learner may
incorporate new information into his existing cognitive structure.

 Meaningful Discovery Learning –

learner arrives at the solution to a problem or other outcome
independently and relates it to his existing knowledge.

 Rote Discovery Learning –

the solution is arrived at independently but is committed to memory.
 DAVID AUSUBEL’S MEANINGFUL
LEARNING THEORY

 This theory primarily applies to older

students who can read reasonably well and
who already have a fund of basic concepts in
a subject-matter field.

 Teachers to take note that before actual

learning is expected, the teachers may use
advance organizers – a term for an abstract,
general overview of new information.

 JEROME BRUNNER’S THEORY OF
INSTRUCTION

 Calls his view of learning “instrumental conceptualism”

 The acquisition of knowledge, whatever its form is a dynamic

interactive process. A learner is a purposive participant in the
knowledge getting process who selects, structures, retains and
transforms information.

 Focused on the problem of what people do with information

to achieve generalized insights or understanding.


 JEROME BRUNNER’S THEORY OF
INSTRUCTION

 Learning is seen as cognitive process that involves

three (3) simultaneous processes.

 Acquisition – process of obtaining new information

that can either replace or refine something previously
known

 Transformation – manipulation of information to fit

new situations

 Evaluation – checking on whether or not the learned

material has been manipulated appropriately.

 Teachers must strive to see a problem as the learner

sees it and provide information that is consistent with
the learner’s perspective.
 ROBERT GAGNE’S CUMULATIVE
LEARNING

 Learning skills are hierarchally arranged,

where there is a progression from
developing simple stimulus – response
association to concepts and principles and
problem solving.
 ROBERT GAGNE’S CUMULATIVE
LEARNING

 Enumerated eight (8) levels of learning

 Signal Learning –
 where involuntary responses are learned. Similar to
classical conditioning. Ex. hot iron touched – flinching of
the hand

 Stimulus – Response Learning –

 whose voluntary responses are learned. Similar to
operant conditioning. Ex. getting ready to move
at the sound of a fire alarm.

 Motor /Verbal Chains Learning –

 two or more separate motor / verbal responses maybe
combined or chained to develop a more complex skill.
 Ex. house + wife = housewife
 ROBERT GAGNE’S CUMULATIVE
LEARNING
 Enumerated eight (8) levels of learning

 Discrimination Learning –
 learner selects a response which applies to certain stimuli. Ex. sound
of fire engine different from other sounds/ sirens.

 Concept Learning –
 involves classifying and organizing perceptions to gain
meaningful concepts. Ex. concept of “triangle” , discriminate
triangle from other shapes and deduce commonality among different
shapes.

 Principle Learning (Rule Learning) –

 involves combining and relating concepts already to form rules. Ex.
Equilateral triangles are similar in shapes.

 Problem Solving –
 considered the most complex condition; involves applying rules to
appropriate problem situations. Ex. Solving mathematical
problems using given formula. Find the area of a square A = 1 x W
Thank You.