Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Ministry of Higher Education

King Faisal University
College of Applied Medical Sciences
Nursing Department
Microbiology (ASCC 3102202)
2nd year, 2018, WEEK :3

LECTURER : SHEEBA KUMARI

(M. Sc, RN,RM) 1
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 Required Texts:
• Tortora, Funke, Case, (2012). Microbiology: An
Introduction. Eleventh Edition.Pearson Publishing
ISBN: 9781292026305.
• Other Resources (Books, Journals, Online Content):
• Michael, Leboffe, Burton, (2011). A Photographic
Atlas for the Microbiology Laboratory. Fourth Edition.
• Author: Gary Kaiser, Erica Suchman. Animation
Illustrating Genetic Exchange in Bacteria as a Result of
Generalized Transduction. Date of retrieval: April 7,
2015.
• http://www.microbelibrary.org/
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At the end of the class students will be able to:

 Define viruses
 Describe the structure of viruses
 Explain viruses taxonomy
 Discuss the general properties of viruses
 Explain virus growth cycle
 Discuss viruses replication
 Discuss the modes of viral transmission

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A virus is a minuscule, acellular,
infectious agent having one to several
pieces of nucleic acid—either DNA or
RNA surrounded by a protein coat.
The smallest infectious agents (20-300 nm)
only seen under

Electron Microscope
(except Poxviruses) 6
 Electron Microscope
- The source of illumination is a beam of electrons
- Electromagnetic lenses

- Magnification is 2 million times or more

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 Differences between viruses & bacteria
1.Viruses are obligatory intracellular parasites
They can not be cultivated on artificial culture media.
 Can only replicate inside living cells.

2. Viruses contain only one type of nucleic acid

(DNA or RNA), never both.

3. Viruses are not susceptible to antibacterial agents.

Antiviral medications for virus
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• Like living things, viruses contain protein and
genetic material

• But viruses don’t act like living things

–Can’t eat, grow, or break down food
–Can’t use oxygen
–Cannot function on its own

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 Are Viruses Living? Cont…
• Can only reproduce
inside a living cell that
serves as a host
• Host: an organism from
which a parasite takes
food or shelter
• Virus uses host’s cell as a
tiny factory, and forces
host to make viruses
rather than healthy new
cells.
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• Nucleic acid (DNA or RNA)

• Protein coat: Capsid

• Lipid envelop

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• Most viruses of multicellular organisms infect only
particular kinds of cells in a host. This specificity is due to
the affinity of viral surface proteins or glycoproteins for
complementary proteins or glycoproteins on the surface of
the host cell.
• Viruses infect archaea, bacteria, plants, protozoa, fungi,
and animals.
• A virus that infects bacteria is referred to as a
bacteriophage, or simply a phage. Infect: E-coli

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• Genetic material either DNA or RNA
• Most RNA is made up of one strand of nucleotides, most
DNA is two strands of nucleotides
• Both DNA and RNA contain information for making
proteins
 Example: DNA: eg: viruses that cause chickenpox & warts
 Example: RNA : eg: viruses that cause
flu, HIV, and common cold.

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 • One strain of virus cannot infect both plants and
animals
Virus Affects What? Which organisms?

Tobacco mosaic Plants Tobacco, tomato,

peppers
Potato X Plants Potatoes, tomatoes,
peppers
Adenovirus Animals Humans & other
vertebrates
HIV Animals Humans & other
primates
Bacteriophage Bacteria E.Coli & other bacteria
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 VIRAL STRUCTURE…
• The units for measurement of virion size are
nanometers (nm).
• Virus range from 10 nm to 500 nm
• The clinically important viruses range from 18 nm
(parvoviruses) to 300 nm (poxviruses).
• The latest and the most direct method for
measuring virus size and shape is Electron
Microscopy.
• Larger virions can hold a larger genome that can
encode more proteins, and they are generally more
complex. 17
 VIRAL STRUCTURE….
Phospholipid bilayer
• The viron (virus particle) consists peplomers
of a nucleic acid core
(genome)surrounded by a protein
coat, the capsid.
• The capsid is composed of a large
number of protein subunits
(polypeptides)which are known as
capsomers.
• The capsid together with the
enclosed nucleic acid is known as
the nucleocapsid.
• Protein subunits are exposed as
projectile spikes on the surface of
the envelop. These structures are
called peplomers. It help viruses attach
themselves to the host cell.
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VIRAL STRUCTURE…. Virus particles

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 VIRAL STRUCTURE….

• The surface structures of the capsid and envelope

mediate the interaction of the virus with the target cell
through a viral attachment protein (VAP) or
structure.

• Removal or disruption of the outer package

inactivates the virus. Antibodies generated against the
VAP prevent virus infection.

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 Virus structure..
• The genome of the virus
consists either of DNA or
RNA.
• The DNA can be single or
double stranded, linear or
circular.
• nucleic acid can maintain
and transmit the genetic
information of the virus.

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 Enzyme possession
• Reverse transcriptase
• Haemagglutinin enzyme (H)
contained in the spike and is required
for adsorption and penetration of
Orthomyxo viruses into the host cells.
• Neuraminidase enzyme (N)
contained in another type of spike and
it is required for invasion and release
of influenza viruses
• Polymerase enzymes
• DNA polymerase and RNA
polymerase are used to assemble
DNA and RNA molecules,
respectively, by copying a DNA or
RNA template strand using base-
pairing interactions
Enzyme Components 22
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 1.ICOSAHEDRAL (CUBICAL) SYMMETRY
• An icosahedron is a polygon
with 12 vertices or corners
and 20 facets in the shape
of equilateral triangular
faces. Icosahedral
symmetry has a rigid
structure.
• Eg: Papova , Picorna,
adenoviruses( all naked or
non enveloped) and herpes,
togaviruses ( enveloped)
Picorna virus
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 2. HELICAL SYMMETRY

• The nucleic acid and the

capsomers are joined together to
form a helical, Cylindrical, rod, or
spiral tube. Consists of numerous
identical capsomers are arranged
in helix.
• Most of the helical viruses are
enveloped and all are RNA
viruses.
• Eg: Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV),
Influenza virus.
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 3. COMPLEX SYMMETRY
• Some viruses do not show either icosahedral or
helical symmetry due to the complexity of their
structures.
• eg: Poxvirus such as vaccinia, cow pox.
• Rabies virus is bullet shape

• Bacteriophage: Enterobacteria phage T4

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Classifying Viruses: Based on shape: There are 4
main shapes of viruses:

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 Virus nomenclature:

• ICNV (International Commmittee of the

Nomenclature of Virus) essential principles of
virus nomenclature are:

Stability
Rejection (prevents confusing names)
Necessity (avoids unnecessary name creation)

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 BASIC TERMS IN VIRAL TAXONOMY
• VIRION
Entire infectious viral particle in nature

• VIROID
- They are the smallest known plant pathogens
- They are destructive to many important commercial plants,
including potatoes, tomatoes, cucumbers, and coconuts.

• VIRINO
-Proteinacious infectious particle i.e. Possess Capsid + Neuclic
acid (N.A) together in Association
-N.A. (About 10-12nm)

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 BASIC TERMS IN VIRAL TAXONOMY..
• VIROPLASM
-site for assembly of sub viral particles
-Modified region where active viral replication takes
place in a viral infected cell
• DEFECTIVE VIRUS
- A virus which is unable to replicate because it lacks
a complete genome
- SATELLITE VIRUS
-A defective virus
-Depends on helper virus for its replication.
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CRITERIA FOR VIRAL CLASSIFICATION

• Based on Neuclic acid (N. A. type)

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 Nature and Strandedness
Nature can be:
 Linear/ Circular
 Segmented/ Non segmented genome or
 Based on Polarity:
1.Sense strand (positive/plus strand)
2.Antisense strand (negative/minus)

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1. Enveloped viruses: eg: Herpes simplex,
chickenpox virus, influenza viruses

2. Non- enveloped viruses (Naked) : Adenovirus,

Parvovirus

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 Characteristics of viral envelope
• Made of lipid and proteins
rarely glycoprotein.
• May be modified host
plasma membrane or
internal membranes
• Projections from the
envelope are known as
spikes or peplomers.
• Functions: Attachment of
the viruses to the host cell.
• Eg: HIV viruses
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 1.Enveloped viruses
• The outermost envelope is
made up of phospholipids,
protein, or glycoprotein
which surround the capsid.
• The phospholipid portion of
enveloped viruses comes
from Host cell membranes.
• Rarely cause host cell lysis.
• Are sensitive to heat, acids
and drying
• Transmission through blood
or organ transplants or
through secretions

• Fig: Influenza viruses

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 2.NON- ENVELOPED VIRUSES
• The outermost covering is the
capsid made up of proteins
• Non enveloped viruses are
more virulent and causes host
cell lysis
• These viruses are resistant to
heat, acid and drying.
• It can survive inside
gastrointestinal tract
• It will induce antibody
production in the host.
• Mode of transmission is
through fecal or oral matter,
fomites and dust.
• eg: fig. adenovirus causes
gastroentriitis
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 SUSCEPTIBILITY TO PHYSICAL AND
CHEMICAL AGENTS
A. TEMPERATURE
• Most viruses are heat liable and are inactivated
within second at 560c, minites at 370c and days at
40c.
• However, Hepatitis B virus resist heating at 600c for
one hour and some strains (slow virus) resist
autoclaving at 1210c for one hour.

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 The viruses remain
viable in a pH range
of 5-9, but are killed
by extreme acidity
and alkalinity.
 Entroviruses are very
resistant to gastric pH
while rhinoviruses are
very susceptible.

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 C. LIPID SOLVENTS
• Chloroform, Ether and
detergents destroy all
enveloped viruses which
contain lipoprotein
envelopes.
• Naked viruses are
resistant to these
agents.

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• Most viruses are destroyed by oxidising agents such
as H2O2, Hypochlorite and iodine compounds.
• Formaldehyde and B-propiolactone (BPL) are
actively virucidal and are commonly used for the
preparation of killed viral vaccines.
• However, most viruses are resistant to phenol.
• Chlorination of drinking water kills most viruses but
hepatitis A’ and polioviruses are relatively resistant
to chlorination, particularly if present with organic
or faecal material.
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D. DISINFECTANTS…

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 E. Radiations///
• Viruses are inactivated
by sunlight, ultraviolet
rays and ionising
radiations.

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 VIRUS GROWTH CYCLE
• Find out about the spread of viruses with this brief look
at the lytic and lysogenic cycles. These occur after a
virus infects a cell.
• Lytic and lysogenic cycles are two different methods
of Viral replication. While they are different, they can
be interchangeable or the replication can involve both
methods in separate phases.
• To start with, the virus has to infect the cell. So the
virus attaches itself to the outer cell wall and releases
enzymes that weaken the cell wall. Then, depending on
whether it is a DNA virus or a RNA virus, the virus
injects its double stranded DNA or its single stranded
RNA into the cell.
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 1.The Lytic Cycle
• In the lytic cycle,: The cycle if a virus
incorporating its genes into the genes of a
host cell is called THE LYTIC CYCLE .which
is considered the main cycle in viral
replication, once the viral DNA enters the
cell it transcribes itself into the host cell's
messenger RNAs and uses them to direct
the ribosomes.
• The host cell's DNA is destroyed and the
virus takes over the cell's metabolic
activities.
• The virus begins using the cell energy for
its own propagation.
• The virus produces progeny phages.
• These replicate fast, and soon the cell is
filled with 100-200 new viruses and
liquid.
• As the cell starts getting overcrowded,
the original virus releases enzymes to
break the cell wall. The cell wall bursts –
this process is called lysing - and the new
viruses are released.
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 2.The Lysogenic Cycle
• In the lysogenic cycle, the viral
DNA or RNA enters the cell and
integrates into the host DNA as
a new set of genes called
prophage. That is, the viral
DNA becomes part of the cell's
genetic material. No progeny
particles, like in the lytic phase,
are produced. Each time the
host cell
DNA chromosome replicates
during cell division, the passive
and non-virulent prophage
replicates too. This may alter
the cell's characteristics, but it
does not destroy it.
• In the lysogenic cycle, each
new cells gets a copy of the
virus’s genes when the host 47
cell divides.
 The Lysogenic Cycle…

• Some viruses first

replicate by the lysogenic
cycle and then switch to
the lytic cycle./**

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Differences Between Lytic and Lysogenic Cycles
In the Lytic Cycle: In the Lysogenic Cycle:
• Viral DNA destroys Cell • Viral DNA merges with Cell
DNA, takes over cell DNA and does not destroy
functions and destroys the the cell.
cell. • The Virus does not
• The Virus replicates and produce progeny.
produces progeny phages. • There are no symptoms of
• There are symptoms of viral infection.
viral infection. • Temperate viral replication
• Virtulant viral infection takes place.
takes place

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1. Adsorption
2. Penetration
3. Uncoating
4. Biosynthesis
5. Maturation and
6. Release

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 1. Adsorption and attachment
• The viruses come in contact
with the cells by random
collision but adsorption or
attachment is mediated by the
binding of virus surface cytoplasm
structures known as ligands, to
the receptors on cell surface.
• eg: influenza virus, the nucleus
hemagglutinin (a surface
glycoprotein) binds especially to
sialic acid residue of
glycoprotein receptor sites on
the surface of the respiratory
epithelium
• E.g. HIV – attachment is
between the viral surface
(ligand) glycoprotein gp 120
and the CD4 receptor on host
cells. 54
 2. Penetration
• After attachment the virus
particles may be engulfed
by a mechanism
resembling phagocytosis, a
process known as
viropexis. Alternatively in
case of the enveloped
viruses, the envelope may
fuse with the plasma
membrane of the host cell
releasing the nucleocapsid
into the cytoplasm.
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 3. Uncoating
• This is the process of
stripping the virus of its
outer layers and capside to
release the nucleic acid
into the cell.
• With most viruses,
uncoating is affected by
the action of lysosomal
enzymes of the host cells.

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 4. Biosynthesis
• Viral genome directs the
biosynthetic machinery of
the host cell to shut down
the normal cellular
metabolism and direct the
sequential production of viral
components.
• The nucleic acid genome of
most DNA viruses
synthesised in the host cell
nucleus.
• Nucleic acid genome of most
RNA viruses is synthesised in
the cytoplasm. 57
 5. Maturation
• The viral nucleic acid and capsid
polypeptide assemble together to
form the daughter viron.
• The assembly takes place in either
the nucleus (herpes and adeno
viruses) or cytoplasm (picorna and
pox viruses).

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 6. Release
• Enveloped viruses are
released by a process of
budding from the cell
membrane over a period of
time. Host cell is usually not
affected but there are
exceptions. E.g. polioviruses
not only damage host cell
but may also be released by
the lysis of the host cell. In
case of bacterial viruses
(e.g. bacteriophages) they
are usually released by lysis
of the infected bacterium.** 59
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 Mechanisms of Viral Transmission
Aerosols
 Food, water
Fomites (e.g., tissues, clothes)
Direct contact with secretions (e.g., saliva, semen)
Sexual contact, birth
Blood transfusion or organ transplant
 Zoonoses (animals to human, / insects
[Arboviruses])
Genetic (vertical) (e.g., Retroviruses)
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 Modes of Control
Quarantine
Elimination of the vector
Vaccination
 Immunization
Treatment
 Education

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 Review
• Which of the following mechanism is used to transfer
virus?
A. Direct contact with secretions
B. Sexual contact
C. Blood transfusion or organ transplant
D. All of the above
The following virus is seen under electron microscope
EXCEPT
A. Poxvirus
B. Herpes simplex virus
C. Influenza virus
D. polio virus