Data Science

Structure of
Following are structures of data:
Data
• Cross-sectional Data
• Time series Data
• Pooled Data/ Pooled Cross Section
• Panel/ Longitudinal Data
Cross-sectional Data:
Sample entries at a given point in time. For example
Respondent Income (Rs.)
Majid 70000
Faisal 40000
Kiran 35000
Zahid 25000

Others are GDP across countries. Annual Sales of different companies in 2014
 Structure
Time Series Data:
of Data
Observation Over time
For example, Monthly income of Person over time
Year Average Mothly Income
(Rs.)
2010 32000
2011 41000
2012 45000
2013 51000
2014 52000

Annual sales of PN&G from 2010-2015, GDP of Pakistan from 2009-2015

 Structure of
Pooled Data/ Pooled Cross Section:
Data
Combined cross section data from different years
For example, Monthly income of respondent from 2011-2013
Sample Year Respondent Average income
2011 Akram 75000
2011 Aslam 42000
2012 Salma 73000
2012 Kumail 65000
2013 Sultan 80000
2013 Mona 83000

i.e individual may change indifferent years

 Structure
Panel/ Longitudinal Data:
of Data
Time series of each cross section, same cross sectional units followed over time
For example, exchange rate of different countries overtime

Country Year Exchange Rate in US dollar

India 2008 9698.96
India 2009 10389.9
India 2010 9090.43
Pakistan 2008 70.40803
Pakistan 2009 81.71289
Pakistan 2010 85.19382
Sri Lanka 2008 108.3338
Sri Lanka 2009 114.9448
Sri Lanka 2010 113.0661
Note that Individual entities (countries) do not change over time
Measurement and Scaling
• In any research, hypotheses and theories are tested using empirical data already
available or specially collected.
• In situations where data are collected specifically, the researcher exerts good control
over the process of data collection to ensure good quality data.

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Measurement and Scaling (Contd.)
• A research is as good as the data that is used in it.
• Data when used for some quantitative analysis, as in hypothesis testing, is as good as
the measurement done on it.
• Therefore that a research is as good as the measurements done on it.

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Measurement and Scaling (Contd.)
• Measurement;
• It has been defined as “the matching of an aspect of one domain to an aspect of another”.

• Scaling;
• Is a procedure for attempting to determine quantitative measures of subjective abstract
concepts.

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Nominal scale
• This is a measurement procedure to classify objects, events and individuals into
categories.
• Nominal scales are least restrictive and widely used in social sciences research.
• Nominal means “in name only”.
• Examples;
• Telephone numbers
• Departmental accounting codes

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Ordinal scales
• This scale is used to measure data having transitivity (if x>y, and y>z then x>z)
property.
• It includes the characteristics of nominal scales in addition to indicating order.

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Interval Scales
• The interval scales has all the characteristics of the nominal and ordinal scales and in
addition, the units of measure (or intervals between successive positions) are equal.
• This type of scale is of a form that is truly ‘quantitative’ in ordinary and usual
meaning of the word.
• Example;
• Centigrade or Fahrenheit degrees in temperature measurement.

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Ratio Scales
• A ratio scale is an interval scale with a natural origin (a true zero point) possessing all
the characteristics of the number system.
• Such a scale is possible only when empirical operations exists for determining all four
relations;
• Equality
• Rank order
• Equality of intervals
• Equality of ratios

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Errors in Measurement
• Precise and unambiguous measurement of variables is the ideal condition for
research.
• In practice however, error creeps into the measurement process in various ways and
at various stages of measurement.
• Major types of these errors are;
• Errors due to interviewer
• Errors due to instrument
• Errors due to respondents

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Errors in Measurement (Contd.)
ORIGIN TYPE OF ERROR
Researcher Wrong question
Inappropriate answers
Misinterpretation
Experimenter expectation
Communication

ORIGIN TYPE OF ERROR

Sample Wrong target
Wrong method
Wrong people
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Errors in Measurement (Contd.)
ORIGIN Type of ERROR
Respondent Consistency / Inconsistency
Fatigue
Lack of commitment
Random
Ego / Humility

ORIGIN Type of EROR

Instrument (a) SCALE Rounding off
Cutting off
Instrument (b) Questionnaire Positional
Ambiguity
Evoked set 16
Construct Question Incogrence