GSM Networking Planning

Coverage Planning
Internal Use Only▲
Contents
1. Overview of coverage planning

2. Link budget
3. Propagation model
4. Scale estimation
5. Coverage enhancing technology
6. The common coverage issues Q&A
1. Overview of coverage planning
1. What is the purpose of coverage planning?

2. What is the work content of coverage planning?
3. What is the input of coverage planning?
4. What is the output of coverage planning?
1. What is the target of coverage planning?
Do the link budget and radius estimation for the targeted

coverage area so as to get to know the site scale and site
deployment which satisfy the KPI. Besides, if a digital map
is available, an adjustment can be done to the sites
according to the results of coverage simulation.
It is a must to have a three dimensional

digital map (Planet/EET) which covers
the whole targeted coverage area. Degree
of accuracy:
For urban areas: not lower than 20m;
For rural areas: not lower than 50m.
2. What is the work content of coverage planning?

Clarify the
input
Coverage
Link budget
simulation
Coverag
e
plannin
g
Propagation
Site
model
deployment
calibration
Scale
estimation
3. What is the input of coverage planning?

•Which cities and major roads will be covered?
The size and range of •What are the categories of scenarios according to the radio
the target coverage area environment?
•What is the coverage range of each scenario?
The coverage requirements of each scenario:

KPI The coverage KPI •Coverage level
•Coverage probability
•Carry out a test and calibrate the parameters of the propagation

The parameters of the model.
propagation model •No test is carried out, and the parameters of the standard
propagation model are adopted.
•The equipment types, which will be adopted for the bidding,

depends on the market strategy.
•The biggest site configuration depends on the frequency bands and
Others the frequency resources.
•Is a Planet three-dimensional digital map available? The coverage
simulation can not do without the map.
•What about the application of the different kinds of coverage
enhancing technologies? ……
4. What is the output of coverage planning?
The balanced
budget of
Site scale uplink/downlink
power
Site Coverage
deployment simulation
2. Link budget
1. Why is link budget needed?
2. What is path link balance?
3. How can we judge a link is limited?
4. What is the result if a link is limited?
5. What is link gain and link loss?
6. What is slow fading?
7. What is fast fading?
8. What is coverage probability?
9. What is margin?
10. What kind of margin should be considered for the link budget?
11. What factors should be taken into consideration to decide the slow
fading margin which is frequently used?
12. What is design signal level and acceptance level?
13. What are the categories of combiner loss which are frequently come
across in link budget?
14. What factors should be taken into consideration to decide the power
of the set-top unit of ZTE series equipment?
15. What factors should be taken into consideration to decide the
antenna and feeder loss of ZTE series equipment?
16. What is TMA?
17. How to choose the a suitable type of antenna?
18. How is the uplink/downlink budget calculated?
19. How to avoid the unbalanced link in network planning?
1. Why is link budget needed?
The purpose of doing the uplink/downlink budget is to

estimate the uplink/downlink coverage ability of the system
and to get the allowed maximum path loss of a balanced
link through an analysis of the factors which influence the
uplink/downlink signals during the transmission.
The link budget is used to see how the uplink/downlink
borders of a cell is covered.
2. What is link balance?

Strictly speaking, link balance means that the difference of
the path loss of the uplink radio link and that of the
downlink radio link is “0”.
Generally speaking, it is considered that there is a rough
link balance if the allowed maximum path loss difference
between the uplink and the downlink is no more than 2dB
when the link budget is calculated.
Downlink
coverage
Uplink coverage
=
Downlink
coverage Uplink coverage
3. How can we judge a link is limited?
Uplink coverage < Downlink coverage，that is,
Uplink limited The allowed maximum uplink path loss < The
allowed maximum downlink path loss
Uplink coverage Downlink coverage

The part of invalid
downlink coverage
Downlink coverage < Uplink coverage，that is,
Downlink limited The allowed maximum downlink path loss < The
allowed maximum uplink path loss
Uplink coverage
Downlink coverage
The part of invalid
uplink coverage
4. What is the result if a link is limited?

In areas with problems, the handset has
signals but it can not originate a call;
Uplink limited
When the subscriber moves towards the
borders of a cell (areas with weak signals),
there may be unilateral conversations or call
drops.
When the subscriber moves from any other
Uplink coverage area towards the uplink limited area which
is an area with problems, the success rate of
Areas with inward handovers of the cell will be affected.
problems
In the areas with problems, the handset is in

Downlink limited the coverage holes of the site, and it can not
originate a call.
When the subscriber moves towards the
borders of a cell (areas with weak
signals), there may be unilateral
conversations or call drops.
Downlink
coverage
Areas with
problems
5. What is link gain and link loss?
Gain
“Gain” means that a positive influence is exerted over the link, Gain=50-40=10dB
and the signals are strengthened.
Unit：dB
There are different categories of link gain: Antenna gain, 40dBm Device 50dBm
diversity gain …
Loss
“Loss” means that a negative influence is exerted over the link,
and the signals are weakened. Loss=40-32=8dB
Unit：dB
There are different categories of link loss: Feeder loss,
combiner loss,
the loss caused by the penetration of buildings or cars, 40dBm Device 32dBm
and body loss
6. What is slow fading?
When the signals are transmitted, they will be blocked by the buildings and the uneven land
forms. In the areas where the signals are blocked, the shadow of electromagnetic waves will be
formed. As a result, the signal strength will be weakened. This is called Shadow Fading, a kind
of fading of signals, which is caused by the shadow effect.
The signals go through a slow and random change within the range of dozens of wavelengths,
so the statistical counting obeys the rules of lognormal distribution. Therefore, Shadow Fading
is also called Slow Fading.
In English, it is called Slow Fading，or

Log-normal Fading，or Shadow
Fading.
7. What is fast fading?
When the signals are transmitted, they will be reflected and scattered many times due to the surrounding environment (for example,
buildings, trees, and so on). In this way, the multi-path interference is formed, so the amplitude and phase of a signal may have a
dramatic change with the pass of time. The overlaying of the multi-path signals forms a vector and a possible serious valley point
of fading, which result in a dramatic fluctuation of the intensity of the field and a short-term fading. The fast fading is a kind of deep
fading of signals, which is caused by the multi-path effect of signal transmission.
The statistical counting principles of probability density of fast fading obeys a Rayleigh distribution. Therefore, Fast Fading is also
called Rayleigh Fading.
In English it is called Fast Fading, or Rayleigh

Fading.
8. What is coverage probability?
Coverage probability refers to how large the probability is that the received signal of the terminal is larger than
the threshold at the coverage borders of the cell (or within the coverage areas).
The edge coverage probability：The percentage of the cell borders whose

received signal is larger than the threshold.
Coverage
probability
The area coverage probability：The percentage of the areas whose received
signal is larger than the threshold.
The test is carried out along the covered cell The test is carried out along the paths of the covered areas
borders. The edge coverage probability refers to the of a cell. The area coverage probability refers to the
percentage of samples, of which the level is at least percentage of samples, of which the level is at least -
- 90dBm. 90dBm.
The threshold level of the cell borders：-90dBm The threshold level of the cell borders ：-90dBm
Under the same
conditions, the area
coverage probability
is larger than the
edge coverage
probability. The two
can be mutually
transformed
according to some
rules in math.
9. What is margin?
When the radio signals are transmitted, they will have an

attenuation caused by different kinds factors of the radio
environment, for example, shadow effect, multi-path effect,
and so on. Therefore, the influence caused by these factors
should be taken into consideration when the design of radio
network starts. At the stage of network planning, some power
can be reserved to resist the possible attenuation. The
reserved power is called margin.
10. What kind of margin should be considered for the link
budget?--1
Slow Fading margin
1
In order to ensure that the site can cover the cell borders with a certain probability, the site
must reserve some transmission power so as to overcome Shadow Fading. So the reserved
margin is called Shadow Fading margin or Slow Fading margin.
Fast Fading margin

2 The multi-path effect of the transmission of radio signals will result in the fast fading of signals,
so the quality of signals will be affected. For GSM system, it resists Fast Fading by making use
of a series of technologies, including interleaving coding, frequency hopping, diversity
reception, adaptive equalization, and so on. Besides, at the stage of network planning, some
design margin should be reserved to resist Fast Fading. This is called Fast Fading margin.
Usually, it is 3dB.
Jamming margin
3
GSM is a kind of interference limited system. The received power should not only resist the
noises but also resist the co-channel/adjacent channel interferences which are caused by the
frequency reuse so as to ensure the quality of the signals. The power reserved to resist the
interference is called interference margin.
Usually it is 3dB.
10. What kind of margin should be considered for the link
budget?--2
Body loss
4
Body loss refers to the kind of loss which is caused by signal
blocking and absorption when the handset is held quite close to
the human body. Usually, for voice service, it is 3dB;and for data
service, it is 0dB.
Loss caused by the

penetration of a building
5 Loss caused by the penetration of a building refers to the
attenuation which occurs when the radio waves penetrate the
exterior structures of a building. It is equal to the difference value
when the median value of the field strength outside the building
and that inside the building are compared. The value related of
Classification of Typical
this kind of loss is closely related to the materials and thickness different areas penetration loss
of the building.
value
Loss caused by the Dense urban 18～22
penetration of a car Medium urban 15～20
6
Loss caused by the penetration of a car refers to the attenuation Suburban areas 10～15
which occurs when the radio waves penetrate the car. It is equal
to the difference value when the median value of the field and rural areas
strength of the signals outside the car and that inside the car are
compared.
Usually, it is 6～8dB.
11. What factors should be taken into consideration to
decide the slow fading margin which is frequently
used?
Area Edge Slow
Area Type Coverage Coverage Fading
Probability Probability Margin (dB)
75% 54% 1
Dense Urban 85% 69% 5
Sigma=10dB 90% 80% 7.7
95% 88% 11.7
75% 50% 0
Medium Urban 85% 66% 3.2
Sigma=8dB 90% 75% 5.5
95% 86% 8.7
80% 50% 0
Suburban/Rural 85% 60% 1.6
/Road
Sigma=6dB 90% 71% 3.4
95% 84% 5.9
12. What is design signal level and acceptance level?
The lowest level required SSmin_req

It refers to the lowest level required for making calls in real situations (outdoor/indoor/in a car).
1 On basis of the receiver sensitivity, it takes the following factors into consideration: Fast Fading
margin, interference margin, body loss, loss caused by the penetration of a building which is
relevant to a indoor subscriber or loss caused by the penetration of a car which is relevant to a
subscriber inside a car.
Design level SSdesign

In order to ensure a certain probability, it is necessary to consider the Shadow Fading margin
2 on basis of the lowest level required or the acceptance level. Then, the level value is called
design level. In other words, at the network planning stage, it is a must to consider the possible
influence exerted by Shadow Fading over the signal coverage. The purpose is to ensure the
network coverage probability.
Acceptance level SSacceptance

Usually, in the bidding documents or the contract, the client will mention the DT coverage KPI,
including the requirements for level value and coverage probability which DT should meet.
3 Then, the required level value which DT should reach is called the acceptance level by us.
However, if the client does not have any requirements for the acceptance level, we should
make a suggestion. Usually, it is considered that SSacceptance should be equal to SSmin_req
(SSacceptance = SSmin_req).
13. What are the categories of combiner loss which are
frequently come across in link budget?
Combiner 900M(dB) 1800M(dB)
1 V2 series combiner loss CDU 4.4 4.6
CEU 3.5 3.5
ECDU 1 1
Combiner 900M(dB) 1800M(dB)

2 V3 series combiner loss CDU 4.4 4.6
CEU 3.5 3.5
CEN 5.3 5.5
MCDU 4.4 4.6
ECDU 1 1
ECU 3.5 3.5
For RU02 and RU02A, the COM

loss is 3dB when it is S3~S4.
3 SDR series combiner loss Other radio frequency processing
units do not have a combiner
inside.
15. What factors should be taken into consideration to decide the
antenna and feeder loss of ZTE series equipment? – The Typical
Antenna and Feeder Connection
•Increase the downlink insertion loss of the
If the feeder loss is more than 3dB, tower amplifier (downlink).
it is suggested that a heavier •Add one T connector and two other
feeder line should be used. connectors (uplink/downlink).
•Add some 1/2 soft jumper cable
(uplink/downlink).
Type Loss Unit

Connector 0.05 dB/each
T connector 0.3 dB/each
Lightning
arrester 0.2 dB/each
TMA insertion
loss 0.5 dB
The table here shows the typical KPI of Hansen. It is just for
your reference. For a specific project, the table should be filled
in according to the actual configuration of feeder line KPI.
Feeder
Type 900 1800 Unit
1/2” 11.2 16.6 dB/100m
7/8” 3.88 5.75 dB/100m
Without With 5/4” 2.77 4.16 dB/100m
TMA TMA 13/8” 2.29 3.47 dB/100m
5. What factors should be taken into consideration to decide the antenna
and feeder loss of ZTE series equipment? – Typical Antenna and
Feeder Connection
RRU and BBU is connected
Installation near
an antenna by fiber； 1. 2m ½” loss for softer jumper
1 RRU and antenna is 2. 2 connector loss
connected by 1/2” jumper.
1. 2×2m ½” softer jumper loss

2. Main feeder line loss between RRU and
RRU is installed on the the antenna
platform of a tower (a 3. 6 connectors loss
platform under the antenna) 4. 1 feeder line lightning arrester loss
The installation
，or installed at the roof and The table here is only for reference, in practice please
position keeps a
distance from it is lower than the antenna calculate according to specific conditions!
both BBU and ；
the antenna.
RRU and BBU is connected Length
2 by fiber；
Height Height of of 7/8 Length Connector
of RRU on main of ½ + 900M 1800
antenna platform feeder jumper lightning (dB) M(dB)
RRU and the antenna is (m) (m) line (m) arrester
connected in a normal way. (m)
50 0 50 4 6+1 2.89 4.04

The length of main feeder
50 10 40 4 6+1 2.5 3.46
line is the distance between
50 20 30 4 6+1 2.11 2.89
RRU and the antenna.
50 30 20 4 6+1 1.73 2.31
50 50 0 2 2 0.32 0.43
16. What is TMA?
TMA—Tower Mounted Amplifier

Tower Amplifier is the short form for Tower Mounted Amplifier. Actually, an amplifier which has
low noises and high linearity (low noise amplifier) is installed at the front end of the receiving
system of the site, a place, which is close to the receiving antenna. It is used to amplify the uplink
signals, to improve the noise figure of the receiving system of the site, and to improve the uplink
coverage capability.
Q：Usually, the KPI designed for the uplink gain is 12dB. Does it follow
that 12dB uplink gain should be taken into consideration when the link
budget is calculated?
A：No. Since TMA is actually a low noise amplifier. On the one hand
the valid uplink signals are amplified, on the other hand, different kinds
of noises and interferences are also amplified. The actual uplink gain
generated by TMA is usually 2 ～ 3dB.
17. How to choose the a suitable type of antenna?

Area Antenna Antenna gain Horizontal Vertical Polarization Electrical downtilt
height（m）（dBi） beamwidth beamwidth categories
of the of the
antenna antenna
Dense urban 20～25 15.5~17 65 8～14 Dual- 0～10 degree electrical
polarization downtilt
Urban areas 35～30 15.5~17 65 8～14 Dual- 2～6 degree electrical
polarization downtilt
Suburban areas 35～40 17~18 65、90 7～10 Dual- 2～4 degree electrical
polarization downtilt or without
electrical downtilt
Rural areas 45～50 17~18 65、90 7～10 Dual- The electrical downtilt
polarization , is optional.
vertical
polarization
Highways or long 45～60 18~22 35 6～8 Dual- The electrical downtilt
and narrow polarization , is optional.
valleys vertical
polarization
Ifa single frequency antenna is used by a co-sited dual-band base station, the antenna selected for the 1800M base station
should be 1～2dB higher in antenna gain than that selected for the 900M base station. Usually, the antenna of a 1800M base
station is higher than that of a 900M base station by 3～5m.
Ifa dual-band antenna is selected, the installation space can be saved. However, the separate adjustment made for the two
networks will not be so flexible. It should be checked whether the antenna parameters of the two frequency bands can both
meet the relevant requirements.
In dense urban areas, an antenna with a lower antenna gain can be chosen if necessary.
18. How is the uplink/downlink budget calculated?
Downlink Uplink
Parameter Symbol Unit Parameter Symbol Unit
Transmission power of the Transmission power of MS A dBm

A dBm
carrier frequency
Antenna gain of MS B dBi
Combiner loss B dB
Antenna gain of BTS C dBi
Output power of the set-
C=A-B dBm
top unit of BTS Diversity gain D dB
Feeder line connector loss D dB Feeder line connector loss E dB
Antenna gain of BTS E dBi The contribution to
F dB
Antenna gain of MS F dBi sensitivity made by TMA
Receiver sensitivity of MS G dBm Receiver sensitivity of BTS G dBm
Fast fading margin H dB Fast fading margin H dB
Interference margin I dB Interference margin I dB

Body loss J dB Body loss J dB
Loss caused by the Loss caused by the
penetration of a building or K dB penetration of a building or K dB
a car a car
Slow fading margin L dB
Slow fading margin L dB
The minimum level
M=G+H+I+J+K dBm The minimum level
required (DL) M=G+H+I+J+K dB
required (UL)
Design level (DL) N=M+L dBm
Design level (UL) N=M+L dB
Downlink enhancing
O dB
technology Uplink enhancing
O dB
technology
The maximum
downlink path loss P=C-D+E+F-N+O dB The maximum uplink
P=A+B+C+D-E+F-N dB
allowed path loss allowed
Choose the maximum path loss allowed for the link which is limited, that is, Min (P uplink, P downlink)
as the maximum path loss allowed for the whole link!
19. How to avoid the unbalanced link in network planning?
The maximum uplink path loss allowed < The maximum downlink path
loss allowed, difference value > 2dBUplink limited  Increase the
uplink coverage or decrease the invalid downlink coverage  Link
balance
Solution: Add TMA, adopt 4 antennae to do the diversity reception, lower
the transmission power of the carrier frequency and so on.
The maximum downlink path loss allowed < The maximum uplink
path loss allowed, difference value > 2dB  Downlink limited 
Increase the downlink coverage  Link balance
Solution: Increase the transmission power of the set-top unit of BTS,
increase the number of antenna and feeder, DPCT technology, DDT
technology and so on.
3. Propagation model
1. What is propagation model?
2. What are the categories of propagation model?
3. What are the frequently-used propagation
models?
4. Why is propagation model calibration necessary?
5. How to evaluate whether a propagation model is
suitable or not?
6. How to get a propagation model before the
calibration is done?
1. What is propagation model?
A propagation model is a kind of mathematical model which

describes and reflects the features of the transmission
environment of the radio signals and the rules for the
changes of the signals. Actually, a propagation model
represents a typical model of the transmission environment
which has some specific features.
At the planning stage, the propagation model can be used in
the following two ways.
Estimation of the Simulation

cell radius
2. What are the categories of propagation model?

Model Statistical model Deterministic model
Concept The propagation model The propagation model is

is based on the obtained through the
statistical analysis of a simulation of the multi-path
large quantity of testing transmission traces of the
data. radio waves. The simulation
is based on the geometrical
information of the clutter
and the buildings which
appear on the transmission
path.
Amount of calculation Small Large
Computational accuracy Average Excellent
Requirements for the accuracy of 20m~50m 1m~5m

the digital map
The requirements for the clutter The information of the The information of the
of the digital map buildings is not buildings must be included.
included.
Application range >1km <1km
Frequently-used models OKUMURA-HATA VOLCANO

COST231
Universal model
3. What are the frequently-used propagation models?
Okumura-Hata
•0.5G~1.5GHz（For 900M）
•Macro cell model
•It is suitable for 900M sites where
the simulation and scale estimation
will be done for a large quantity of
sites in a wide range.
Volcano COST231
•0.5G~2GHz •1.5G~2GHz (For
•Micro cell model 1800M)
•It is suitable for a The frequently-used •Macro cell model
specific area where the •It is suitable for
simulation will be done propagation models 1800M sites where
for a small quantity of the simulation and
sites. scale estimation will
be done for a large
quantity of sites in a
wide range.
•0.5G~2GHz (For 900/ 1800M)

•Macro cell model
•It is suitable for the sites where the
simulation and scale estimation will be
done for a large quantity of sites in a wide
range.
•At present, this model is adopted by
AIRCOM/CNP.
Universal model
4. Why is propagation model calibration necessary?
The radio transmission environment differs for each place due to the various land forms, geographic
features, distribution of buildings, coverage of vegetation, and so on. For example, cities in plain
areas VS cities in areas with hills, cities where there is a dense distribution of high buildings VS
cities where most of the buildings have 1～2 storeys, cites in desert areas VS cities in areas where
there is a wide coverage of vegetation … … Actually, propagation model calibration is necessary for
each city. The purpose is to get the parameters of the propagation model which is consistent with
the actual situation.
If the same set of parameters is applied to every scenario, it is quite possible that the planning
scheme differs greatly from the actual situation. Here are the consequences:
1. The network coverage which has been established is not good enough to meet the coverage KPI.
2. It is a large waste of resources if there are too many sites. Besides, severe interferences may
appear if there is a dense distribution of sites.
5. How to evaluate whether a propagation model is
suitable or not?
Before the calibration:

The Mean Error is not 0, the standard deviation Std Dev is
large.
Figure: The intersection point of the red line and the vertical
axis is not 0.0; the slope of the red line is not 0.
After the calibration:

The Mean Error tends to be 0, the standard deviation Std
Dev<=8dB. This means the model is quite consistent with
the actual situation.
(For dense urban areas, std dev<=10dB is also acceptable.
);
Figure: The intersection point of the red line and the vertical
axis is 0.0; the slope of the red line is 0.
Horizontal ordinate: The logarithm of the distance between

the testing place and the base station is represented by
logd.
Vertical ordinate: The Mean Error which is calculated by
comparing the actual level of the testing place and the
predicted level of that place is represented by Error.
Dense dots: Testing places
The red line: It shows a kind of tendency about what the
Mean Error is likely to be when the overall actual testing
values of the testing place are compared with the
predicted values.
6. How to get a propagation model before the calibration
is done?
If it is not possible to carry out the propagation model test or calibration of the
target city due to the problems of resources or time and the like, it is acceptable
to choose a propagation model from the model library by following some certain
rules. This model can be regarded as an alternative choice, which should be
similar to the actual radio environment of the target city. However, there may be
some differences between the alternative choice and the actual situation.
As to the rules for choosing the model, they can be set up according to the
experience of the engineers or by using some customized automatic tool.
Actually, this kind of tool will be applied to the Road Map of CNP.
Conditions Risks
1. The digital map of the city for It should be noticed that the model,
which the planning will be done. which is selected by using the tool, can
only be regarded as the most suitable
2. In the propagation model library,
model from the existing model library.
there are a certain amount of
However, it does not mean that it is
parameter sets related to the
completely matched with the actual
propagation models, which are
environment.
reliable and accurate.
3. A tool used for choosing a model
automatically
4. Estimation of the coverage scale

1. How to estimate the coverage radius of a single
site?
2. What’s the influence of downtilt over the
coverage?
3. How to calculate the site distance at the pre-
planning stage?
4. How to estimate the coverage area of a single site?
5. How to estimate the scale of coverage?
1. How to estimate the coverage radius of a single site?
1 Link budget  Get the maximum path loss allowed for a whole link, that is, PL.
2 Propagation model calibration  Get the value of each parameter of the propagation model
3 Calculate “d” of the propagation model formula in a reverse way  Get the maximum
coverage
radius of the site
Choose a universal propagation model:

PL=k1+k2*lgd+k3*Hm+k4*lgHm+k5*lgHb+k6*lgHb*Lgd+k7*diffraction+ clutter Loss
Here,
PL means the maximum path loss allowed for the whole link, which is calculated in the link budget.
k1～k7 and Clutter Loss are the parameters which are obtained after the propagation model
calibration. (As to the estimation of the radius, only k1 ～ k6 will be involved in the calculation.)
Hm is the height of MS.
Hb is the effective height of BTS antenna.
d refers to the distance between the base station and MS (km).
When d of the model above is calculated in a reverse way, the following formula can be obtained.
d=10^((PL-K1-K3*Hm-k4*lgHm-k5*lgHb)/(k2+k6*lgHb))
Here d is actually the estimated coverage radius R of the base station.
2. What’s the influence of downtilt over the coverage?
When the maximum path loss allowed is calculated in the link budget, the influence exerted by the
downtilt is not taken into consideration. If the influence exerted by the downtilt over the coverage is
to be taken into consideration, the radius should be estimated according to the following formula.
DT: Downtilt (mechanical downtilt +

electrical downtilt)
H: The antenna height of BTS
Atan：Inverse tangent trigonometric
function
VB: Vertical 3dB beamwidth of the
antenna
DF: The distance to the farthest place
which the upward 3dB beamwidth can
cover. It is the predicted coverage radius
when the downtilt DT is taken into
consideration.
DN: The distance to the nearest place
which the downward 3dB beamwidth can
cover
D: The distance covered by the main lobe
right ahead
3. How to calculate the site distance at the pre-planning
stage?
Three-sector
Omni sites
directional sites
The distance between two three- The distance between two omni
sector directional sites is 1.5R. sites is 1.73R.
R represents the radius of the R represents the radius of the
directional cell. omni cell.
If two-sector directional sites are used for the

coverage of a long and narrow road, the distance
between the sites should be 2R.
R represents the radius of the directional cell.
4. How to estimate the coverage area of a single site?
A three-sector
An omni site
directional site
Cell radius R
The coverage
area of a single 0.65R2 2.6R2
cell
The coverage
area of a single 1.95R2 2.6R2
site
5. How to estimate the scale of coverage?

For example,
According to the radio environment, the target city A
is divided into two parts, that is, the mean urban area
MU and the suburban area SU. The two areas are
represented by two polygons separately.
MU SU Notes
R The estimated
Cell radius km 0.5 1
SU radius R
The size of the
MU coverage area of a 0.1625 0.65 0.65R2
single cell km2
The size of the
coverage area of a 0.4875 1.95 1.95R2
single site km2
The size of the The size of the
4 10
polygon km2 polygon S
The number of
8 5 Num=S/(1.95R2)
BTSs (Num)
The total number of =Num(MU)+Num(
13
BTSs of the city A SU)
5. Coverage enhancing technologies

1. How many coverage enhancing technologies are
there?
2. What is bypass?
3. What is DPCT?
4. What is DDT?
5. What is FWDR?
6. What is IRC?
1. How many coverage enhancing technologies are there?
Downlink
Uplink coverage
coverage Notes
enhancing
enhancing
TMA Bypass
DPCT and DDT can

FWDR DPCT not be used at the
same time.
IRC DDT
2. What is bypass?
If a cell is configured with no more than 2 carrier frequencies, the TX interface of a carrier frequency
can be connected to the ETX interface of a CDU, then, it can be connected to a Duplexer directly
without the use of a combiner.
When the link budget is calculated, only 1dB duplexer loss is considered, and the power of the set-
top unit is increased.
ANT(RX/TX) ANT(RX/TX)
Duplexer Duplexer
CDU CDU
Combiner LNA Combiner LNA

TX1 TX2 ETX TX1 TX2 ETX
R R R R E E R R R R E E
X X X X R R X X X X R R
1 2 3 4 X X 1 2 3 4 X X
1 2 1 2
TX RXM RXD TX RXM RXD
TRX1 TRX2
3. What is DPCT?
Dual Power Combining Transmission

DPCT means that two transmitters send the same bursts at the same time, which are
combined in the form of one carrier frequency through a combiner so as to increase
the output power.
From a physical perspective, DPCT can help to increase the power, so it is especially
suitable for areas which need a wide coverage.
The two signals have the same phase

and amplitude, and they are combined
within a carrier frequency module.
Theoretically speaking, 3dB downlink
gain can be obtained if one PA is
combined with another. However, if the
internal loss is taken into consideration,
the actual gain of DPCT is 2.5dB.
4. What is DDT?
Delay Diversity Transmission

DDT means that two carrier frequencies send the same signals at a slightly different time. The
signals are sent out by different antennae so as to get some time/space diversity gain. In this way,
the downlink coverage is enhanced. DDT is suitable for some complicated radio transmission
environment.
At BSC side, the main/auxiliary TRX can be regarded as one TRX, and the parameters which the
auxiliary TRX is configured with are the same as those which the main TRX is configured with. The
quantity of signs inserted between them can be configured at OMCR.
The downlink gain which can be generated by DDT is 2~3dB.
Phase adiust
RF PA
algorithm
Phase adiust
RF PA
algorithm
5. What is FWDR?
Four Way Diversity Receiving

FWDR means that 4 single antennae or 2 dual-polarized antennae are used to make a
single carrier frequency have four-way received signals. Then, these signals are
combined as a one-way signal through the merging algorithm so as to enhance the
diversity gain.
Compared to the two way diversity gain, FWDR can generate an extra 2～3dB gain
for the uplink receiver sensitivity. Under the multi-path loss condition, the dense
urban areas which have a complicated transmission environment can have a higher
gain.
6. What is IRC?
IRC: Interference Rejection Combining

If the interferences of the diversity reception signals from two different ways are relevant to each
other, the relevance computing will be done for the noises of each diversity branch to check the
relevancy between the interferences and to combine the signals accordingly. The purpose is to
complete the interference rejection and to improve the quality of the received uplink signals.
With IRC, C/I can get about 3～5dB gain in dense urban areas where the radio environment is
complicated.
If the interferences received from different antennae are not

relevant to each other, the performance of IRC is similar to
that of MRC. However, if the interferences are relevant to each other,
IRC is much more stronger than MRC in terms of the interference
rejection ability.
MRC: Maximum Ratio Combining

If the interferences of the diversity reception signals on two different ways are not
relevant to each other, weighting and combining should be done to the signals from M
different ways.
6. The frequently asked questions about
coverage planning Q&A
1. What is a blind zone under a tower?
2. How to solve the problem if there is a blind zone
under the tower?
3. What is weak coverage?
4. How to solve the problem of weak coverage?
5. What is overshooting?
6. How to solve the overshooting problem?
7. When is it called that there is not a serving cell?
8. What measures can be taken to solve the problem
that there is not a serving cell?
1. What is a blind zone under a tower?
A blind zone under a tower refers to a part of the user zone which needs to be covered, an
area which is covered by the first null or the second null under the vertical antenna
radiation pattern. Compared to any other area which is either near or far, the signal
strength of the blind zone under a tower may have greater attenuation (20～30dB), and a
weak coverage area is formed. As a result, there may be a large number of subscriber
complaints, and the KPIs of call drop rate and the like may be affected.
The location of the blind zone under a tower is related to the antenna radiation pattern, the
antenna height, and the transmission environment.
Null: It refers to the deep fading point between the

central lobe and the side lobe, or between two side
lobes.
-80dBm
-70dBm
-90dBm -90dBm
A blind zone
under a tower
2. How to solve the problem if there is a blind zone under
the tower?
Choose a null fill antenna;

Choose an electrical downtilt antenna;
Adjust the antenna downtilt appropriately so as to avoid the
blind zone under a tower in a dense user zone.
Null fill: The shaped-beam should be used to complete the first lower null fill of
the side lobe of the vertical pattern of the antenna so as to reduce the deep
fading of the null.
An antenna without a null fill An antenna with a null fill

3. What is weak coverage?
Weak coverage means that the signal level is too low to keep a
Concept good call quality. It is usually believed that the coverage will be
weak if the signal level is lower than -90dBm. If the coverage is
weak, there will be many problems, for example, subscriber
complaints, high call drop rate, and so on.
For example, the power of the set-top unit of the base

Causes station is too small; the site planning is not reasonable;
the antenna height is too low according to its original
design; the inclination is too large; there is some
blocking because of the land forms or the buildings.
A weak coverage A weak coverage

area area
4. How to solve the problem of weak coverage?
At the network planning stage, more attention will be given to

the possible weak coverage areas. The following factors
should be taken into full consideration: The site location, the
antenna type, and the reasonableness of the designed
engineering parameters.
Increase the power of the set-top unit of the base station.
Check the decreased power problems caused by the
equipment failures.
In the weak coverage areas, some base stations or repeaters
should be added.
5. What is overshooting?
Overshooting means that the actual coverage range of
a cell exceeds the range which has been designed
beforehand and an overlapping area is formed by this
Concept cell and another cell which is far from it.
Overshooting may result in frequent handovers, an
increase of interferences, the islanding effects, and so
on.
Here are the possible causes: The transmission power

Causes
of the base station is too large; the antenna lobe is too
large; the antenna is too high; the inclination is too
small; there is an uneven land form; and so on.
B
A Cell A is an
overshooting
area.
C
6. How to solve the overshooting problem?

One should be cautious when the site location is selected for a
highland or a mountain slope.
It should be ensured that the antenna type and the engineering
parameters of the antenna should be reasonably selected or designed
at the network planning stage.
The coverage area of the overshooting area should be controlled
through the adjustment of engineering parameters and the
transmission power of the base station.
If it is not possible to control the coverage at that time, it is suggested
that some neighbor cells should be added to the overshooting cell.
Control the coverage area of A. Enhance the neighbor cell

relations between A and C.
B B
A A
C C
7. When is it called that there is not a serving cell?
For 2 or more cells, the signal strength of one cell is quite close to that of another cell, it is not
found that the signal strength of any cell has a big advantage over other cells. The handset has
frequent cell reselections when it is at an idle state, or there are “ping-pong handovers” during
Concept
the calls. The problems mentioned here are caused by the fact that there is not a serving cell.
 There are frequent cell reselections when the handset is at an idle state.
 In the cells at the borders of LAC, the location update occurs frequently due to the
frequent cell reselections. As a result, there will be an unnecessary increase of signaling
load or congestion. Besides, there will be “ping-pong handovers” during the calls, and
Influence the voice quality will deteriorate.
 The transmission rate of the data service will be affected.
 Because of the fluctuations of signals, there will be more subscriber complaints.
 There are interferences, C/I is not satisfactory, and the voice quality deteriorates.
For the 3 cells in this area, the
signal level of each cell is
almost the same, so there is
The engineering parameters of not an obvious serving cell.
the antenna are not designed in a
reasonable way.
The transmission power of the
Causes carrier frequencies is too large or
too small.
The configuration of the
parameters is not reasonable ……
8. What measures can be taken to solve the problem that
there is not a serving cell?
 Adjust the antenna directional angle or the antenna
downtilt so as to ensure that there is a serving cell of
1 the coverage area, which has relatively strong and
stable signals.
 Adjust the transmission power of the carrier

frequencies of the relevant cells so as to ensure that
2
there is a serving cell of the coverage area, which has
relatively strong and stable signals.
 When the serving cell of the area is made clear, it is

suggested that the cell reselection parameters should
3 be adjusted so as to ensure that the subscribers can
reside in the serving cell as long as possible. In this
way, it is possible to relieve the frequent cell
reselections.
 When the serving cell of the area is made clear, it is

suggested that the handover parameters of the cells should
4 be adjusted so as to reduce or eliminate the “ping-pong
handovers” during the calls.

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Coverage Planning

Internal Use Only▲

1. Overview of coverage planning

1. Overview of coverage planning

1. What is the purpose of coverage planning?

1. What is the target of coverage planning?

Do the link budget and radius estimation for the targeted

It is a must to have a three dimensional

2. What is the work content of coverage planning?

3. What is the input of coverage planning?

The coverage requirements of each scenario:

•Carry out a test and calibrate the parameters of the propagation

•The equipment types, which will be adopted for the bidding,

4. What is the output of coverage planning?

1. Why is link budget needed?

The purpose of doing the uplink/downlink budget is to

2. What is link balance?

3. How can we judge a link is limited?

Uplink coverage < Downlink coverage，that is,

Uplink coverage Downlink coverage

Downlink coverage < Uplink coverage，that is,

4. What is the result if a link is limited?

In the areas with problems, the handset is in

In English, it is called Slow Fading，or

In English it is called Fast Fading, or Rayleigh

The edge coverage probability：The percentage of the cell borders whose

When the radio signals are transmitted, they will have an

Fast Fading margin

Loss caused by the

The lowest level required SSmin_req

Design level SSdesign

Acceptance level SSacceptance

Combiner 900M(dB) 1800M(dB)

For RU02 and RU02A, the COM

Type Loss Unit

1. 2×2m ½” softer jumper loss

50 0 50 4 6+1 2.89 4.04

16. What is TMA?

TMA—Tower Mounted Amplifier

17. How to choose the a suitable type of antenna?

Transmission power of the Transmission power of MS A dBm

Receiver sensitivity of MS G dBm Receiver sensitivity of BTS G dBm

Fast fading margin H dB Fast fading margin H dB

Interference margin I dB Interference margin I dB

19. How to avoid the unbalanced link in network planning?

A propagation model is a kind of mathematical model which

Estimation of the Simulation

2. What are the categories of propagation model?

Concept The propagation model The propagation model is

Computational accuracy Average Excellent

Requirements for the accuracy of 20m~50m 1m~5m

Frequently-used models OKUMURA-HATA VOLCANO

3. What are the frequently-used propagation models?

•0.5G~2GHz (For 900/ 1800M)

4. Why is propagation model calibration necessary?

Before the calibration:

After the calibration:

Horizontal ordinate: The logarithm of the distance between

4. Estimation of the coverage scale

Choose a universal propagation model:

2. What’s the influence of downtilt over the coverage?

DT: Downtilt (mechanical downtilt +

If two-sector directional sites are used for the

5. How to estimate the scale of coverage?