OPERATIONALIZATION AND

MEASUREMENT SAMPLING

• RESEARCH SEMINAR I
• Dr. Lizan Perante - Calina
• RSH 630

» REPORTERS:
HARRY LECHICO
DIANNE JENNIFER MOLINA
WILHELMINA ROSARIO T. DAILO
 Operationalization Research
•The process of creating a definition(s) for a concept
that can be observed and measured

•The development of specific research procedures

that will result in empirical observations

•Operationalization is the process of strictly defining

variables into measurable factors. The process
defines fuzzy concepts and allows them to be
measured, empirically and quantitatively.
Operationalization also sets down exact
definitions of each variable, increasing the quality
of the results, and improving the robustness of
the design
 Why Operational Research
Important
•To improve program outcome – Operational Research can
be used to identify constraints in intervention strategies or
in general control measures which prevent set targets
from being achieved

•To assess the feasibility of new strategies or interventions

– Operational Research can be used to test new tools,
strategies or approaches against existing ones in specific
settings or populations

•To advocate for policy change- Operational Research can

be used to “describe” experiences and methods of
implementation.
Research Concept VS. Research
Variable
•The main difference between a concept and
variable is measurability.
•Concepts – are mental images or perceptions.
Therefore, meanings varies markedly from
individual to individual
•Variables – are measurable, though of course,
with varying degrees of accuracy.
“A concept cannot be measured, it is subjective
impressions by which if measured can cause
problems in comparing responses obtained from
different respondets, whereas a variable can be
subjected to measurement”.
Concepts Variables
Satisfaction Gender (male or female)
Rich Age (x years and y months
In converting concepts into variables
(measurable), you need to consider the
OPERATIONALIZATION, which means how
will the concepts be measured.

Sample

A concept of rich (in terms of wealth) can be

converted into indicators and then variables.
For example, to decide objectively if a person
is rich, one first needs to decide upon the
“indicators of wealth”. Assume that we
decide upon income and assets as the
indicators.
Income is also a variable since it can be
measured in Philippine Peso or in US Dollars;
therefore, you do not need to convert it into
variable. Although the assets owned by an
individual are indicators of his/her richness,
they still belong to the category of concepts.
You have to look further at the indicators of
assets such as house, cars and investments
are indicators of assets. Converting the value
of each one into dollars will give the total
value of the assets owned by a person.
SAMPLING
 SAMPLING
 The process of selecting units from a
population
 A process used in statistical analysis in which a
predetermined number of observations are
taken from a larger population.
 The selection of a subset (a statistical sample)
of individuals from within a statistical
population to estimate characteristics of the
whole population.
 A statistical procedure that is concerned with
the selection of the individual observation; it
helps us to make statistical inferences about
the population.
 SAMPLING
TERMINOLOGIES
 POPULATION
 Is the entire pool from which a statistical sample is drawn.
(Investopedia)
 Is the broader group of people to whom you intend to generalize
the results of your study. (Statistics Solutions)
 Groups in Sampling
Who do you want to
generalize to?
Groups in Sampling
The theoretical
population
 Groups in Sampling
The theoretical
population

What population can you

get access to?
Groups in Sampling
The Theoretical
Population

The study
population
Groups in Sampling
The theoretical
population

The study
population

How can you get

access to them?
Groups in Sampling
The theoretical
population

The study
population

The sampling
frame
 Groups in Sampling
The theoretical
population

The study
population

The sampling
frame

Who is in your study?

Groups in Sampling
The theoretical
population

The study
population

The sampling
frame

The sample
TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
• any method of sampling that utilizes some form of
random selection. (SocialResearchMethod.net)
• is a sampling technique wherein the samples are
gathered in a process that gives all the individuals
in the population equal chances of being selected.
(Explorable.com)
• each population member has a known, non-zero
chance of participating in the study. (Research-
Methodology.net)
• uses random sampling techniques to create a
sample. (SurveyGizmo.com)
Application of Probability
Sampling

FOUR STAGES OF
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. PROCESS
Identifying an appropriate sampling frame based on your
research question(s) and objectives.
2. Determining a suitable sample size.
3. Choosing the most appropriate sampling technique and
selecting the samples.
4. Checking if the sample is representative of the population.
Advantages of Probability
Sampling

• The absence of systematic error and sampling bias

• Higher level of reliability of research findings
• Increased accuracy of sampling error estimation
• The possibility to make inferences about the population
Disadvantages of Probability
Sampling

• Higher complexity compared to non-probability sampling

• More time consuming
• Usually more expensive than non-probability sampling
 N = the number of cases in the sampling frame
Some Definitions
 n = the number of cases in the sample
 NCn = the number of combinations (subsets) of n from
N
 f = n/N = the sampling fraction
TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 SIMPLE
RANDOM
SAMPLING
 The simplest form of
sampling
 The purest and the most
straightforward
probability sampling strategy
 The most popular method
for choosing a sample among
population for a wide range
of purposes
 SIMPLE
RANDOM
SAMPLING
 Each member of
population is equally likely to
be chosen as part of the
sample
 The logic behind simple
random sampling is that it
removes bias from the
selection procedure and
should result in
representative samples
Application of Simple Random
Sampling

1. A list of all members of population is prepared. Each element

is marked with a specific number (suppose from 1 to N).
2. N items are chosen among a population size. This can be
done either with the use of random number tables or
random number generator software.
 Two Approaches
that are aimed to minimize the relevance of bias

1. LOTTERY METHOD
2. USE OF RANDOM
NUMBERS
 STRATIFIED
SAMPLING
 a probability
sampling method and a form
of random sampling in which
the population is divided
into two or more groups
(strata) according to one or
more common attributes.
 intends to guarantee that
the sample represents
specific sub-groups or strata.
Application of Stratified Sampling

1. Identification of relevant stratums and ensuring their actual

representation in the population.
2. Numbering each subject within each stratum with a unique
identification number.
3. Selection of sufficient numbers of subjects from each stratum.
 STRATIFIED SAMPLING
Automotive Motorcycles Financial services Other entities
N Manager ü N Manager ü N Manager ü N Manager ü
001 Hudson 001 Conrad ü 001 Guzman 001 Sparks
002 Bass ü 002 Braun 002 Craig 002 Atkinson ü
003 Richmond 003 Gentry 003 Green ü 003 Montes
004 Tucker 004 Hartman ü 004 Ballard ü 004 Mcguire
005 Chavez ü 005 Levine 005 Cox 005 Spencer ü
006 Riddle 006 Griffin ü 006 Dunlap ü 006 Davies
007 Mckinney 007 Valentine 007 Patrick 007 Bradford ü
008 Terrell ü 008 Mcdonald 008 Gardner ü 008 Collins
009 Hayes 009 Brown ü 009 Carpenter 009 Chen
010 Escobar ü 010 Kaufman 010 Vasquez 010 Hess ü
 SYSTEMATIC
SAMPLING
 every Nth member of
population is selected to be
included in the study.
 every Kth item is selected to
produce a sample of size n from
a population size of N
 can be likened to an arithmetic
progression wherein the
difference between any two
consecutive numbers is the
same
Application of Systematic
Sampling

1. Label each member of the sample group with a unique

identification number (ID).
2. Calculate the sampling fraction by dividing the sample size to
the total number of the population: f = n/N

3. The first sample has to be chosen in a random manner.

4. Additional members of sample group are chosen by recruiting
each Nth subject
 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Example

ABC Company
Total Population = 200
Actual Sample Size = 24

2. Sampling Fraction = 24/200 = 3/25 rounded to 1/8 (Can be rounded of to the nearest 10 or 100)
Accordingly, every 8th member of the sampling frame needs to be selected to participate in the study.

3. Choose the first sample randomly. Suppose you choose #47 as first sample.

4. Therefore, your sample group will comprise of ABC Company employees under the following
numbers: #47; #55; #63; #71; #79; #87; #95; #103; #111; #119; #127; #135; #143; #151; #159; #167;
#175; #183; #191; #199; #7; #15; #23; #31.
 CLUSTER
SAMPLING
 is a technique in which clusters
of participants that represent
the population are identified
and included in the sample.
 involves identification of cluster
of participants representing the
population and their inclusion
in the sample group.
 The main aim of cluster
sampling can be specified as
cost reduction and increasing
the levels of efficiency of
sampling.
 CLUSTER
SAMPLING
 conducted when the size of a
population is too large to
perform simple random
sampling.
 A major difference between
cluster and stratified
sampling relates to the fact that
in cluster sampling a cluster is
perceived as a sampling unit,
whereas in stratified sampling
only specific elements of strata
are accepted as sampling unit.
 Application of Cluster
Sampling
1. Select a cluster grouping as a sampling frame.
2. Mark each cluster with a unique number.
3. Choose a sample of clusters applying probability sampling.
 MULTI-STAGE
SAMPLING
 a more complex form of cluster
sampling which contains two or
more stages in sample
selection.
 In simple terms, in multi-stage
sampling large clusters of
population are divided into
smaller clusters in several
stages in order to make primary
data collection more
manageable.
 involves a combination of two
or more of the probability
sampling methods
Application of Multi-Stage
Sampling

1. Choosing sampling frame, numbering each group with a

unique number and selecting a small sample of relevant
discrete groups.
2. Choosing a sampling frame of relevant discrete sub-groups.
This should be done from relevant discrete groups selected in
the previous stage.
3. Repeat the second stage above, if necessary.
4. Choosing the members of the sample group from the sub-
groups using some variation of probability sampling.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

• is a sampling technique where the samples are

gathered in a process that does not give all the
individuals in the population equal chances of
being selected.
• a sampling technique in which the researcher
selects samples based on the subjective
judgment of the researcher rather than
random selection.
• does not involve random selection
• Subjects in a non-probability sample are
usually selected on the basis of their
accessibility or by the purposive personal
judgment of the researcher.
There are some considerations about the minimum sample sizes in non-
probability sampling as illustrated in the table below:

Nature of study Minimum sample size

Semi-structured, in-depth
interviews 5 – 25

Ethnographic 35 – 36

Grounded theory 20 – 35
Considering a homogeneous
population 4 – 12
Considering a heterogeneous
population 12 – 30
Advantages of Non-Probability
Sampling

• Possibility to reflect the descriptive comments about the

sample
• Cost-effectiveness and time-effectiveness compared to
probability sampling
• Effective when it is unfeasible or impractical to conduct
probability sampling
Disadvantages of Non-Probability
Sampling

• Unknown proportion of the entire population is not included

in the sample group i.e. lack of representation of the entire
population
• Lower level of generalization of research findings compared
to probability sampling
• Difficulties in estimating sampling variability and identifying
possible bias
When to use Non-Probability
Sampling

• This type of sampling is used to indicate if a particular trait or

characteristic exists in a population.
• This sampling technique is widely used when researchers aim at
conducting qualitative research, pilot studies or exploratory
research.
• Non-probability sampling is used when researchers have limited
time to conduct researcher or have budget constraints.
• Non-probability sampling is conducted to observe if a particular
issue needs in-depth analysis.
 TYPES OF
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
CONVENIENCE
SAMPLING
 (also known as availability
sampling)
 a non-probability sampling
technique where samples are
selected from the population
only because they are
conveniently available to
researcher.
 a type of sampling where the
first available primary data
source will be used for the
research without additional
requirements.
Application of Convenience
Sampling

• Using convenience sampling method, you can send a link to the

online questionnaire to individuals on your mobile phone’s
contact list, to individuals you are connected to via social
networking websites such as Facebook, LinkedIn, Google+ and
to individuals whom you know in person. This would be the
easiest and the most convenient way of recruiting the sources
of the primary data for your research.
 CONSECUTIVE
SAMPLING
 the researcher picks a single
person or a group of sample,
conducts research over a
period of time, analyzes the
results and then moves on to
another subject or group of
subject if needed.
QUOTA SAMPLING
 a non-probability sampling and
it can be defined as a sampling
method of gathering
representative data from a
group.
 Application of quota sampling
ensures that sample group
represents certain
characteristics of the
population chosen by the
researcher.
Application of Quota Sampling

1. Dividing the population into specific groups.

2. Calculating a quota for each group.
3. Determining specific condition(s) to be met and quota in each
group
  the samples are selected based
PURPOSIVE SAMPLING purely on researcher’s
knowledge and credibility.
 SNOWBALL
SAMPLING
 helps researchers find sample
when they are difficult to
locate.
 Researchers use this technique
when the sample size is small
and not easily available.
MEASUREMENT

Wilhelmina Rosario T. Dailo

Research Seminar I
RSH 630
Dr. Lizan Perante-Calina
 Social scientists can and do measure
just about anything you can imagine
observing or wanting to study.
• Those who are interested in learning something about the
correlation between social class and levels of happiness must
develop some way to measure both social class and
happiness. Those who wish to understand how well
immigrants cope in their new locations must measure
immigrant status and coping. Those who wish to understand
how a person’s gender shapes their workplace experiences
must measure gender and workplace experiences.
 Levels of Measurement
• Nominal Measures. Variables whose attributes have only the
characteristics of exhaustiveness (one attribute composing of
variable) and mutual exclusiveness (one and only one attribute) like
two people in terms of a nominal variable is that they are either the
same or different.
Illustration:
A large gathering of people to stand together in groups
according to their gender. Members of a given group are
females and each group has a different gender.
Attribute – gender
Exhaustive – groups has different gender
Mutual exclusive group has only one gender
Attributes composing variables may represent
different levels of measurement : nominal,
ordinal, interval and ratio
 Levels of Measurement
• Ordinal Measures. A level of measurement describing a variable with
attributes we can rank-order along some dimension.
Illustration:
Imagine that we ask all the people who thinks religion is the most
important to stand in one group, all those who think it is very important
to stand in another group, those who think that its fairly import in a
separate group and all those who wo think that it is not very important to
stand in a fourth group. This manner of grouping people satisfies the
requirements for exhaustiveness and mutual exclusiveness discussed
earlier.

We can logically arrange the four groups in terms of the relative amount of religiosity (the
shared attribute) each had. We arranged the four groups in a row ranging from the one
with lowest to the highest religiosity. This arrangement would provide a religious
representation of an ordinal measure.
 Levels of Measurement
• Interval Measures. A level of measurement describing a variable
whose attributes are rank ordered and have equal distances
between adjacent attributes.
Illustration:
The interval separating IQ scores of 95 and100 may be
regarded as the same as the interval separating scores of 110
and 1115, by virtue of the distribution of observed scores
obtained by many thousands of people who have taken the
tests over the years. But it would be incorrect to infer that
someone with an IQ of 150 is 50 percent more intelligent than
some-one with an IQ of 100.
Attributes are ranked from lowest to highest IQ and their
variables are all 5.
 Levels of Measurement
• Ratio measure A level of measurement describing a variable with attributes that
have all the qualities of nominal, ordinal and interval measures and in addition are
based on a "true zero" point.
Illustration:
All with ＄10,000 income together, the ＄20,000 income together, the ＄30,000
income, and so forth. The fact that members of a single group share the same income
and that each different group has a different shared income satisfies the minimum
requirement for a nominal measure. Arranging the several groups in a line from
lowest to highest income meets the additional requirements of an ordinal measure
and lets us determine if one person has a higher income than, or the same income as
another. If we space the groups equally far apart, we satisfy the additional
requirements of an interval measure and will be able to say who receives more
income than another. Finally, because one of the attributes included in income
represents a true zero (income extends from an absolute zero to ＄50,000). Comparing
two people in terms of a ratio variable then, allows us to determine ( I )that they are
different (or the same), (2) that one is more than the other, (3)how much they differ
and (4) the ratio of one to another.
 Implications of Levels of
Measurement
• The variables to be examined in a research project
are limited to a particular level of measurement. At
the same time, you can treat some variables as
representing different levels of measurement. Ratio
measures are the highest level, descending through
interval and ordinal to nominal, the lowest level of
measurement.
• The level of measurement you'll seek then, is
determined by the analytical uses you've planned for
a given variable, as you keep in mind that some
variables are inherently limited to a certain level. If a
variable is to be used in a variety of ways, requiring
different levels of measurement, the study should be
designed to achieve the highest level required.
• For example, if the subjects in a study are asked their
exact ages and you have no need for ages at higher
than the ordinal level of measurement, they can later
be organized into ordinal or nominal groupings, you
may simply group their age range, such as 20 to 29,
30 to 39, and so forth.
 Implications of Levels of
Measurement
• Always seek the highest level of measurement possible. Again,
although ratio measures can later be reduced to ordinal ones,
you cannot convert an ordinal measure to a ratio one. More
generally, you cannot convert a lower-level measure to a
higher-level one. That is a one-way street worth remembering.
• Typically a research project will tap variables at different levels
of measurement

 For example, William and Denise Bielby (1999) set out to examine the world of film and television
in what they referred to as the "culture industry," the authors found that reputation (an ordinal
variable) is the best predictor of screenwriters' future productivity
 They found that screen writers who were represented by "core" (or elite) agencies were far more
likely not only to find jobs (a nominal variable) but also to find jobs that paid more (a ratio
variable).
 In other words, the researchers found that an agency's reputation (ordinal) was a key independent
variable for predicting a screen writer's success. The researchers also found that being older
(ratio), being female (nominal), belonging to an ethnic minority (nominal), and having more years
of experience (ratio) were disadvantageous for a screenwriter. On the other hand, higher earnings
from previous years (measured in ordinal categories) led to more success in the future.
 Single or Multiple Indicators
• Many social research variables have fairly obvious, straightforward
measures. No matter how you cut it, gender usually turns out to be a
matter of male or female: a nominal-level variable that can be measured
by a single observation.
• Sometimes, however, there is no single indicator that will give you the
measure of a chosen variable.
• Many concepts are subject to varying interpretations each with several
possible indicators. In these cases, you'll want to make several
observations for a given variable. You can then combine the several pieces
of information you've collected to create a composite measurement of the
variable in question.
• Consider the concept "college performance.” All of us have noticed that
some students perform well in college courses and others do not.
• We might ask what characteristics and experiences are related to high
levels of performance. How should we measure over all performance?
Each grade in any single course is a potential indicator of college
performance, but it also may not typify the student's general performance.
The solution to this problem is so firmly established that it is, the grade
point average (GPA). Total the points earned by given student and divide
by the number of courses taken to obtain a composite measure.(If the
courses vary in number of credits, we adjust the point values accordingly.)
 CRITERIA OF MEASUREMENT
QUALITY
Precision and Accuracy
• Precision and accuracy are important qualities in research
measurement.
• The description of a woman as "43 years old" is more precise
than "in her forties.”
• 43 years old because she was born on 1975, that’s accuracy.
 CRITERIA OF MEASUREMENT
QUALITY
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
• Reliability is a matter of whether a particular technique,
applied repeatedly to the same object, yields the same result
each time

So how do you create reliable measures? If your research design

calls for asking people for information, you can be careful to ask
only about things the respondents are likely to know the answer
to. Ask about things relevant to them, and be clear in what
you're asking. Of course, these techniques don't solve every
possible reliability problem.
 Several techniques developed for
cross-checking the reliability of the
measures.
• Test-Retest Method Sometimes it's appropriate to make the same
measurement more than once, a technique called the test-retest method
Illustration:
207 subjects were questioned about their life health situation, three
months later, a follow-up questionnaire asked the same subjects for the
same information. Only 15 percent of the subjects reported the same
information in both studies. Thus, test-retest revealed that this data-
collection method was not especially reliable.
 Several techniques developed for
cross-checking the reliability of the
measures.
• Split-Half Method. This is done by comparing the results of one half of a
test with the results from the other half.
Illustration:
20 itemed questionnaire was created about life health situation,
these questions were randomly assigned to two sets of 10, each set should
provide a good measure of life health situation and should classify
respondents the same way or if the two sets of should classify
respondents differently, there is a problem with the reliability of the
measurement.
 Several techniques developed for
cross-checking the reliability of the
measures.
• Using Established Measures. Measures that have proven their reliability
in previous research

Illustration:
If you want to measure life health situation, you might want to
follow research from the department of health.
 Several techniques developed for
cross-checking the reliability of the
measures.
• Reliability of Research Work. Measurement unreliability can
also be generated by research workers: interviewers and
coders, for example
Illustration:
To guard against interviewer unreliability, it is common
practice in surveys to have a supervisor call a
subsample of the respondents on the telephone and
verify selected pieces of information.
 CRITERIA OF MEASUREMENT
QUALITY
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

• Validity is a term describing a measure that accurately reflects the

concept it is intended to measure.

Our IQ would seem a more valid measure of our intelligence than would the
number of hours you spend in the library. Though the ultimate validity of a
measure can never be proven, we may agree to its relative validity on the
basis of face validity, criterion-related validity, content validity, construct
validity, internal validation, and external validation. This must not be confused
with reliability.
 CRITERIA OF MEASUREMENT
QUALITY
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
• Face validity is the quality of an indicator that makes it seem a
reasonable measure of some variable.

Illustration:
That the frequency of church attendance is some
indication of a person’s religiosity seems to make sense
without a lot of explanation. It has face validity.
 CRITERIA OF MEASUREMENT
QUALITY
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
• Criterion-related validity is the degree to which a measure
relates to some external criterion, also called predictive
validity.

Illustration:
The validity of College Board exams is shown in their
ability to predict students’ success in college.
College success the criteria.
 CRITERIA OF MEASUREMENT
QUALITY
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
• Construct validity is the degree to which a measure relates to
other variables as expected within a system of theoretical
relationships.
Illustration:
We might reasonably conclude that satisfied husbands
and wives will be less likely than dissatisfied ones to
cheat on their spouses. If our measure relates to
marital fidelity, that constitutes evidence of our
measure’s construct validity. Tests of construct validity,
then, can offer a weight of evidence that we measure
either does or does not tap the quality we want it to
measure.
 CRITERIA OF MEASUREMENT
QUALITY
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

• Content validity is the degree to which a measure covers the

range of meanings included within a concept

Illustration:
A test of mathematical ability cannot be limited to
addition alone but also needs to cover subtraction,
multiplication, division, and so forth.
 CRITERIA OF MEASUREMENT
QUALITY
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
Reliability looks like a "tight
pattern," regardless of where
the shots hit, because
reliability is a function of
consistency. Validity on the
other hand, is a function of
shots being arranged
around the bull’s eye. The
failure of validity is
reliable valid valid systematically off mark.
but not and but not Notice that neither an
valid reliable reliable unreliable nor an invalid
measure is likely to be
useful
 Who Decides What's Valid?
• Validity began with a reminder that we depend on agreements to determine
what's real. Sometimes Social researchers implicitly assumes that they are
somewhat superior to those they study

Example: The biologist feels superior to the frog on the lab table

In seeking to understand the way ordinary people make sense of their

worlds, ethno methodologists have urged all social scientists to pay
more respect to these natural social processes of conceptualization
and shared meaning

• Ultimately, social researchers should look to both colleagues and subjects as

sources of agreement on the most useful meanings and measurements of the
concepts they study. Sometimes one source will be more useful, sometimes the
other. But neither should be dismissed.
 Tension between Reliability and
Validity
• Clearly, we want our measures to be both reliable and valid. Often, however, a tension arises
be-tween the criteria of reliability and validity, forcing a trade-off between the two.
• Example: One of the strategy in measuring morale in different factories is immersing yourself
in the day-to-day routine of the assembly line, observing what goes on and talking to the
workers. This would seem to provide a valid measure of morale than counting grievances.
However, the counting strategy would be more reliable.
• This situation reflects a more general strain in research measurement. The more variation and
richness we allow for a concept, the more opportunity there is for disagreement on how it
applies to a particular situation, thus reducing reliability.
• Creating specific, reliable measures often seems to diminish the richness of meaning our
general concepts have. This problem is inevitable. The best solution is to use several different
measures, tapping the various aspects of a concept.
• If there is no clear agreement on how to measure a concept, measure it several different
ways. If the concept has several dimensions, measure them all. Above all, know that the
concept does not have any meaning other than what you and I give it. The only justification
for giving any concept a particular meaning is utility. Measure concepts in ways that help us
understand the world around us.
 REFERENCES
• https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/sampling.asp
• https://www.Wikipedia.com
• https://www.StatisticsSolutions.com
• https://research-methodology.net/sampling-in-primary-data-
collection/non-probability-sampling/
• https://explorable.com/non-probability-sampling
• https://www.statisticshowto.datasciencecentral.com/non-
probability-sampling/
• https://www.questionpro.com/blog/non-probability-sampling/
• http://www.researchscape.com/blog/12-types-of-non-probability-
sampling
• https://research-methodology.net/sampling-in-primary-data-
collection/non-probability-sampling/
• http://sandbox.informatics.iupui.edu