an area intended to sustain vehicular or foot traffic, such as a road surfaces, cobblestone and granite setts were extensively used, but these surfaces have mostly been replaced by asphalt or concrete. SUBGRADE
The load is transferred by the sub-grade
effectively to the earth mass. However, the locally available earth is used to construct the sub-grade but it becomes necessary that the sub-grade should be of required strength. BASE COURSE and SUB-BASE
Base course and sub-base course is used in
the flexible pavement to disperse the upcoming loads to large area through a finite thickness, so as to increase the load bearing capacity of the pavement. SURFACE COURSE
The top most layer serves as the smooth
riding surface for the traffic, and it wears all the abrading forces. The top most layer is constructed with the superior quality of aggregates because it has to wear the maximum intensity of loads. TWO PAVEMENT TYPES: FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT (or Asphalt Concrete Pavement) -asphalt concrete, commonly called asphalt tarmac, pavement or black top, is a composite material used in the construction of roadways and parking lots. This composite is a mixture of petroleum by product, asphaltic bitumen and aggregates materials. In asphalt concrete, the asphaltic bitumen acts as a sort of glue that binds the aggregate pieces together. RIGID PAVEMENT (or Portland Cement Concrete Pavement) -Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) pavement, or rigid pavement as it is sometimes called, refers to the rigid concrete layer of the pavement structure that is in direct contact with the traffic. PCC pavements are subject to challenging environments and loads over their lifetimes, so the concrete must be strong and durable, yet cost effective and workable. CONCRETE ROADS ADVANTAGES Durability and maintenance free life Concrete roads have a long service life of forty years, whereas asphalt roads last for ten years. More over, during this service life concrete road do not require frequent repair or patching work like asphalt roads. Vehicles consume less fuel
A vehicle, when run over a concrete road,
consumes 15-20% less fuel than that on asphalt roads. Resistant to automobile fuel spillage and extreme weather. Unlike asphalt roads, concrete roads do not get damaged by the leaking oils from the vehicles or the extreme weather conditions like excess rain or extreme heat. Greener Process
Asphalt (bitumen) produces lots of highly
polluting gases at the time of melting it for paving. Also, less fuel consumption by the vehicle running on a concrete road means less pollution. Saving of Natural Resources
Concrete (cement) is produced from
abundantly available limestone. DISADVANTAGES Paving Cost
The paving cost of the concrete road is little
higher compared to asphalt paving Maintenance Problem
In case the concrete road breaks, the whole
concrete slab needs to be replaced. Safety Features
In case the concrete road breaks, the whole
concrete slab needs to be replaced. ASPHALT ROADS ADVANTAGES Economical
Asphalt is still less costly compared to
concrete. Moreover, it takes less time to build an asphalt road than a concrete road (asphalt dries faster). Easy Maintenance
Repairing just a part of the asphalt road is
easily possible. Asphalt roads even can be relayered over the old layer. Recyclable
Asphalt is a recyclable material. It can be used
again by melting it. Not only can the aggregates be reused, but the asphalt cement binder also retains its cementing properties and can be reused in a new mix. Safe
Asphalt roads provide better traction and skid
resistance for vehicles. Asphalt tends to help keep roads free from ice and snow. The dark color of asphalt reduces glare, helps melt ice and snow, and provides and high contrast for lane markings. DISADVANTAGES Durability
Heavy rain and other extreme weather
conditions damage the asphalt road, and the roads need to be repaired frequently Weather Pollution
Melting asphalt produces lots of harmful
green house gases. Also costly petroleum is required to produce asphalt. Design Methods for Asphalt Pavement Design by Precedent Many agencies, particularly those of small cities and countries that do not have laboratory equipment or personnel, rely almost entirely on precedent in making pavement designs. The rule for residential subdivisions of a western city of moderate sizes furnishes an illustration. It calls for 6 in. of compacted base course from a local quarry topped by 2 in. of asphalt concrete surfacing. California (Hveem) Method Three factors that affect permanent deformation are considered in this method. They are: 1. The effect of traffic, normally expressed as number of equivalent 18,000 lb axle load 2. The strength characteristics (R-value) of the soil and base (or subbase) materials as measured in the stabilometer test 3. The tensile strength characteristics of the materials above the subgrade as measured in the Hveem cohesivemeter, started as a gravel equivalency factor (Gf). Portland Cement Association Design Method The fundamental assumptions underlying this method are: 1. Slabs will be of uniform thickness 2. Critical stresses occur when tires are positioned at the edge of the transverse joint and directly under the point where load repetitions are most frequent. 3. Maximum tensile stress occurs in the bottom of the slab directly under the load; the moments producing it act in a vertical plane parallel to the joint edge 4. Although provision for effective load transfer across transverse joints is essential to prevent faulting, no credit is taken for the resulting reduction in stress. 5. The design aims to prevent fatigue failure from flexure under repeated loads. PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE Refers to action that are corrective and preventive. RECONSTRUCTION- refers to the removal of existing pavement and replacing them with a new pavement and under course. OVERLAY- could be either by portland cement or asphalt concrete laid on an existing pavement. RECYCLING- the repeated use of existing material working on asphalt materials portland cement or lime. Railroad Track Rail tracks (also railway tracks, railroad tracks (US)) are the surface structures that support and guide trains or other rail- guided transportation vehicles. MAJOR TRACK COMPONENTS BALLAST Ballast has numerous functions, which include:
Provide vertical and lateral stability to the
track Drain water adequately Allow the track to be adjusted by manual or mechanical means Adequately spread the load to the next layer in the track substructure TIE A railroad tie/railway tie/crosstie (North America), or railway sleeper (Europe, Australia and Asia) is a rectangular support for the rails in railroads tracks. Generally laid perpendicular to the rails, ties transfer loads to the track ballast and subgrade, hold the rails upright, and keep them spaced to the correct gauge. Dimentions: Depth of 7 in, width: 8-9 ft for ordinary track, but up to 22ft for ties used in turnouts and crossovers. Tie spacing: minimum of 10 in face to- face to allow tamping of ballast under them actual spacing: 19.50-22.25 in RAIL Rails support and provide guidance for the flanged wheels on rail vehicles and transmit wheel loads to the ties. Rail weights: 85 lb/yd -150 lb/yd Rail is graded by weight over a standard length. Heavier rail can support greater axle loads and higher train speeds without sustaining damage than lighter rail, but at a greater cost. GUIDEWAYS
The guideway is one of the important elements
of machine tool. The main function of the guideway is to make sure that the cutting tool or machine tool operative element moves along predetermined path. The machine tool operative element carries workpiece along with it. The motion is generally circular for boring mills, vertical lathe, etc. while it is straight line lathe, drilling, boring machines, etc. THANKYOU!!!