Presentation of Introduction To Drainage

 Course Module: Introduction to drainage
 Department of Irrigation and Drainage Technology

 Year II(2018/2019),Semester I
 Module Code: IDT 203
 Credits: 5
 Prepared by Twizeyimana Tharcisse
CONTENT
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 CHAPTER 2: DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS


 CHAPTER 3: FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOIL
 CHAPTER 4: DRAINAGE REQUIREMENTS
 CHAPTER 5: DRAINAGE SYSTEM

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
Definition
 Agricultural drainage can be defined as the
removal of excess surface water and/or the lowering of
the groundwater table to below the root zone in order
to improve plant growth.
 Drainage is the only way to reclaim the land which

has problems of waterlogging and salinity due to the
accumulation of salts in the root zone.
 Drainage of agricultural land, as indicated above, is
an effective method to maintain a sustainable
agricultural system
Drainage system terms
 Relief drains: are used to effect a lowering of ground water
over relatively large flat areas where percolation from precipitation
or irrigation serves as the water source, and where gradients of
both the water table and subsurface strata do not permit sufficient
lateral movement of the ground water.
 Interceptor drains are used to cut off or intercept ground water
which is moving downslope from some source.
 Collector drains receive water from subsurface relief or
interceptor drains and from farm surface drains carrying
irrigation surface waste and storm runoff. Because collector
drains control ground water as well as receive flow from
tributary subsurface drains, they must be designed with a normal
water surface at or below the depth which will provide effective
subsurface drainage in adjacent or tributary areas
Drainage system terms (cont’d)
 Open and Pipe Drains.-Open drains are channels with an exposed
water surface.
Pipe drains are buried pipe regardless of material, size, or shape.
Generally, all of the nomenclature for other types of drains may be
applied to either open or pipe drains. Drain size and purpose, physical
condition of the soils, topography, required drain spacing, and annual
operation and maintenance costs largely dictate whether drains are to
be open or pipe
 Sub outlet drains have the principal function of conveying water
from collector drains to the outlet drain. In general, they are located
in topographic lows.
 Outlet drains convey collected water away from the drained area
or project.
The outlet drain is usually a natural channel in the topographic low for
the area to be drained, but where a natural channel does not exist, one
can be constructed.
 Water logging: the accumulation of excess water in the root zone
of the soil.
Drainage system terms (cont’d)
 Inlet:
(1) A connection between the catchment area and a drain or sewer
for the admission of surface or storm water.
(2) A structure at the entrance end of a conduit.
(3) The upstream end of any structure through which water may
flow.
 Runoff: Water from precipitation that flows off a surface to
reach a drain, sewer or receiving water.
 Water-table: The surface within soil or rock strata at which
groundwater saturation occurs.
 Sedimentation: The process of deposition and consolidation of
suspended material carried by water, wastewater or other liquids,
by gravity
 Ponding: the accumulation of excess water on the soil surface.
Objectives and effects of agricultural drainage
The overall objective of agricultural drainage, as part of
agricultural water management, is to enhance crop growth
and to maintain the soil productivity. The immediate
objectives of agriculture drainage are :
1. To remove excess surface and subsurface water;
(cont’d)
2. To remove excess soluble salts with the (excess) water from the
drained soil profile;
(cont’d)
3. To maintain groundwater levels at a desired level
.
Benefits of Drainage system
 Agriculture
• Increase agricultural land
• Increase crop yields
• Diversified crop patterns
• Prevention of water logging and soil salinity
• Increase value of the land
• Increase of farm incomes
 Environment and Health
• Control pollution
• Protect groundwater quality
• Save fresh water
• Limits environmental degradation
• Prevent water borne diseases
Benefits of Drainage system (cont’d)
 Urban industry
• Flood prevention
• Improve sanitation and domestic water supply
• Less damage in built-up areas
• Increase in land value
Needs for Drainage
Most of the time, optimum agricultural production depends on
provision of proper drainage system of soils having problems like
water logging; high water table; high salt content etc.
 Drainage to control ponding
To remove ponding water from the surface of land, surface
drainage is used.
Normally, this consists on digging shallow open drains.
To make easy the flow in these drains, the field is given an
artificial slope.
This is known as land shaping or land grading.
(2) Surface drainage is the removal of excess water from the

surface of the land by diverting it into improved natural or
constructed drains, by shaping and grading of the land surface
towards such drains.
Needs for Drainage(cont’d)
 Drainage to control water logging
(1) To remove excess water from the root zone, subsurface
drainage is used.
This is done by digging open drains or installing pipes, at
depths varying from 1 to 3m .
The excess water flows down through the soil into these drains
or pipes so that the water table can be controlled.
(2) Subsurface drainage is the removal of excess water and
dissolved salts from soils via ground water flow to the drains so
that the water table and root-zone salinity are controlled.
The relationship of subsurface drainage to root development is
illustrated in the following figure: A high water table in the rainy
season inhibits root development, leaving a plant with an
inadequate root system during the dry season, allows maximum
root development for such drainage conditions.
 Drainage to control salinization
(1) To remove salts from the soil, more irrigation water is applied to
the field than the required quantity by crops.
The extra water infiltrates into the soil and percolates through the root
zone.
While water is percolating, it dissolves the salts in the soil and
removes them through the subsurface drains.
This process, in which water washes the salts out of the root zone, is
called leaching.
(2) Leaching is the removal of soluble salts by water percolating
through the soil.
(3) The extra water required for leaching must be removed from the
root zone by drainage, otherwise the water table will rise and this will
bring the salts back into the root zone.
i.e salinity is controlled by a combination of irrigation and drainage.
 Needs to control field water table
- The water table is the upper boundary of the ground water;

- The water table is at atmospheric pressure;
- Below the water able, all the soil pores are filled with water: This is known as
the saturated zone;
- Most of the flow groundwater towards the drains takes place in the saturated
zone;
- Above the water table, there is a zone where the soil pores are partly filled with
water and partly filled with air: This is the unsaturated zone or the zone of
aeration.
- The unsaturated zone is very important for plant growth: This is the zone where
root take up water i.e capillary water.
- The water table fluctuates with time: after irrigation or rainfall, there is a sudden
rise of the water table, followed by a gradual fall due to the flow of water
towards the drainage system.
Types of drainage systems
 Surface Drainage: Surface drainage is the removal of

water from then surface of the land. Situations which may
produce the need for surface drainage include excess
precipitation, water applied in irrigation, losses from
conveyance channels and storage facilities, or water
which has seeped from ground water at a higher
elevation. Control of surface water is normally
accomplished by providing channels to facilitate removal.
Types of drainage systems (cont’d)
Subsurface Drainage is the removal or control of ground

water and the removal or control of salts, using water as the
vehicle.
Situations which may produce the need for subsurface
drainage include
 percolation from precipitation or irrigation
 leakage from canals, drains, or surface water bodies at
higher elevations; or
 leakage from artesian aquifers.
Generally, any drain or well which is designed to control or
lower the ground water is considered subsurface drainage.
Types of drainage systems (cont’d)
 Deferred Drainage.-Deferred drainage is that which is

provided after project works have been constructed and the
irrigation has begun. The deferral of construction of such drains
usually is necessary because of the difficulty of locating and
designing them accurately before the lands are irrigated and the
drainage problem becomes evident. The term “deferred drainage”
is more often applied to subsurface drainage because the need for
surface drains which are constructed as a part of the initial project
works is generally more evident.
Classification of drains
1) Natural drains
- These are the lowest valley line between 2 ridges
- The natural drainage should be improved by removing
debris from the waterways (waterway under the road bridges,
culverts waterways, etc…)
2) Artificial drains
These are the constructed drains, generally alined along the

drainage line.
Classification of drains (cont’d)
1) Open drains or surface drains
- Surface drains are normally used for the removal of excess surface
irrigation water or for the disposal of storm water
- They remove water before it has entered the soil
- Deep surface drains with bed level below water table also can be used to
drain surface water and seepage water.
2) Closed drains or subsurface drains
- Closed drains or field buried drains are known as tile drains. They
remove water which has entered the soil.
- They are usually laid 1 to 1.5m below the ground surface at a suitable
spacing and grade to lower down the GW table.
Components of a drainage system
1) A field drainage system, which prevents ponding water
on the field or controls the water table
Field drainage system is a network that gathers the excess
water from the land by means of field drains and possibly
supplemented by measures to promote the flow of water into
these drains.
2) A main drainage system, which conveys the water away

from the farm
3) An outlet, which is the point where the drainage water is

led out of the area.
Components of a drainage system (cont’d)
Components of a drainage system (cont’d)
Elements of drainage design
The principal elements of drainage design are:
1. design criteria
2. crop requirement,
3. site investigations, and
4. plans and specifications
At several points, in the design procedure, it may be

necessary to choose between alternate locations, methods
and materials.
The choice depends on the management and economic
aspects of the farm as well as on the physical requirements of
the site
Development of drainage-design criteria
Design criteria are developed in two general ways:
 (a) From empirical data collected through evaluation of
existing drainage systems, and
 (b) From a theoretical analysis of the problem, applying
known physical laws and testing the theory through evaluation
of existing drainage systems.
An example of empirical criteria is the drainage coefficient

used in design of drains in humid areas
Q = v a = (CD)A
where
Q=tile capacity; v=flow velocity; a=tile cross section;
CD=drainage coefficient; A=drainage area
Types of drainage problems
 Successful drainage of a wet area depends on a correct

diagnosis of the problem
 The drainage system may be designed, however, only after
the nature of the problem has been identified.
 The following typical drainage problems have been divided
into surface and subsurface problems for convenience
Types of drainage problems (cont’d)
 Surface-drainage problems
Flat and nearly flat areas of land are subject to ponded

water caused by:
1. Uneven land surface with pockets or ridges which
prevent or retard natural runoff.
 Slowly permeable soils magnify the problem.
1. Low-capacity-disposal channels within the area which
remove water so slowly that the high water level in the
channels causes ponding on the land for damaging
periods.
2. Outlet conditions which hold the water surface above
ground level, such as high lake or pond stages, or tide
water elevations.
Surface-drainage problems
 Subsurface-drainage problems arise from many causes, it is
convenient to classify subsurface-drainage problems by the source
of excess ground water and the way it moves into and through the
problem area.
This method of identifying subsurface conditions is especially
useful for the more complex drainage problems because it also
indicates the kind of drainage system needed.
The reconnaissance and preliminary surveys are carried out to
obtain the needed information on ground-water occurrence and
other site conditions.
 As experience with subsurface-drainage problems accumulates
for a given area, the amount of preliminary information needed to
identify certain problem types usually is reduced.
 New areas or new kinds of drainage problems require greater
emphasis at the preliminary stage of planning.
1. Basin-type free-water table : Relief drains may be used to lower the
water table in such areas, unless soil permeability is too low.

Subsurface-drainage problems
1. Water table over an artesian aquifer: Ground water may be confined in
an aquifer so that its pressure surface(elevation to which it would rise in a
well tapping the aquifer) is higher than the adjacent free-water table. Such
ground water is termed as artesian
Basin-type free-water table : Relief drains may be used
to lower the water table in such areas, unless soil
permeability is too low.
Water table over an artesian aquifer: Ground water
may be confined in an aquifer so that its pressure
surface(elevation to which it would rise in a well
tapping the aquifer) is higher than the adjacent free-
water table. Such ground water is termed as artesian
3. Lateral ground-water flow problems
This group of subsurface-drainage problems is characterized by more or less
horizontal ground-water percolation within or toward the crop root zone.
4. Perched-water table
Aperched water table (Figure 1 ) is anaccumulation
of groundwater that is above the water table in the
unsaturated zone. The groundwater is usually trapped
above an impermeable soil layer, such as clay, and
actually forms a lens of saturated material in the
unsaturated zone
Differences of drainage in humid and arid areas
Drainage in humid areas Drainage in arid areas

 Excess water resulting from
 Excess water resulting from irrigation, with foreign ground
precipitation water and important source in
 The primary goal of agricultural some areas.
drainage is to lower the water  The primary goal of
content of the root zone
agricultural drainage is to
 Secondary goal is to provide remove the accumulated salts
site access and trafficability for
from the root zone
timely planting and harvesting
 In most cases pipe drains are
 Open drainage system is the
the most practical solution
most commonly used
 subsurface drains should be
 The depth of drains in humid
at least 1.5 to 2 m deep.
climates is generally 1 to 1.5 m
Effects of excess water on crops
 Poorly drained soil depresses crop production in
several ways:
1. Evaporation, which takes heat from the soil, lowers

soil temperature.
Also, wet soil requires more heat to warm up than does

dry soil due to the high specific heat of water as
compared to that of soil. Thus, the growing season is
shortened.
2. Saturation or surface ponding stops air circulation in

the soil and prevents bacterial activity
3. Certain plant diseases and parasites are encouraged.

Effects of excess water on crops (cont’d)
4. High water table limits root penetration.
5. Soil structure is adversely affected.
6. Salts and alkali if present in the soil or ground water tend to

be concentrated in the root zone or at the soil surface.
7. Wet spots in the field delay farm operations or prevent

uniform treatment
Drainage requirements determined by crops
The drainage requirement is based on:
(a) the maximum duration and frequency of surface

ponding,
(b) the maximum height of the water table , or
(c) the minimum rate at which the water table must be
lowered.
Drainage requirements determined by crops (cont’d)
Water logging has an effect on the uptake of nutrients by
plants. This
is shown by certain symptoms which develop under
circumstances of water logging.
These symptoms are yellowing, reddish, or
stippled (dotted)
appearance of the leaves.
In some sensitive plants, prolonged water logging
damage the root
system, and consequently the plants die due to lack of
nutrient and water uptake.
 The water table may be defined as the upper surface of the
saturated zone of free unconfined ground water. The soil-
moisture content for a significant height above a water
table is substantially greater than field capacity
Forms of soil water
 Gravitational water
Water that is free to move
downward through the soil by the
force of gravity is called gravity
water. At saturation, all pores are
filled and the soil holds the
maximum amount of water that
can be absorbed without dilation.
(Dilation is the bulking or flotation
of soil grains.)
Forms of soil water
 Capillary water
Capillary water is held in the soil against gravity. It includes the film of water
left around the soil grains and the water filling the smaller pores after gravity
water has drained off.
Close to the water table, the quantity of capillary water held in a granular
material is greater than field capacity. The amount of water held at a given
point depends on the distance above the water table , as well as on the soil pore
sizes and shapes. This form of capillary water is sometimes called fringe water.
 Just above the water table, fringe water completely fills the capillary pores,
and in this relatively narrow zone, saturation occurs at slight negative pressure
(tension).
 Openings so large that capillary rise in them is negligible are called super
capillary openings. Examples of materials containing supercapillary openings
are gravel, boulders, some forms of lava, structurally fractured rock or clay,
solution openings in rock, and soil containing rootholes.
 Hygroscopic water
When a granular material is completely dried by heating, then exposed to the
air, it absorbs atmospheric moisture. This water, when in equilibrium with the
atmospheric moisture, is called hygroscopic water.
Surface drainage principles
 Surface drainage is the removal of water that collects
on land surface.
It is a system of drainage measures, such as open drains

and land forming, to prevent ponding by diverting
excess surface water to a collector drain.
Surface drainage principles
(cont’d)
 Many fields have depressions or low spots where water
ponds.
• Surface drainage techniques such as land leveling,

construction of shallow ditches or waterways can allow
the water to leave the field rather than causing
prolonged wet areas.
Surface drainage principles (cont’d)
The system is conveniently divided into three functional
'parts:
(1)Collection system: Bedding, field ditches, row ditches, or

diversion ditches are part of the system that first picks up
water from the land.
(2)Disposal system: This is the part of the system that

receives water from the collection system and conveys it,
usually in an open ditch , to the outlet
(3) Outlet: This is the end point of the drainage system under
consideration.
Outlets of drainage system
 The water from field plots flows toward drain or shallow

ditches through artificial down-slopes.
 Then shallow ditches discharge into larger and relatively

deeper drain called collector drain.
 The collector drain is connected to the lake or other

deep water bodies.
Open field drain
A surface drainage system has always two components:
 Shaping of the surface by land forming to enhance the

flow of water towards the field drains, and
 Construction of open field drains to divert this water

to the collector drainage system
Land forming
•Land forming is defined as changing the micro-
topography of the land to meet the requirements of
surface drainage or irrigation. Three land-forming
systems are distinguished: bedding, land grading, and
land planning
Land forming systems
 Bedding
Bedding is the oldest surface drainage practice.
Under this system the land surface is formed into beds by
manual labor, animal traction, or farm tractors.
The beds are separated by parallel shallow, open field drains

oriented in the direction of the greatest land slope.
The water drains from the beds into the field drains, which
discharges into a collector drain constructed at the lower end
of the field and perpendicular to the field drains.
 Bedding is accomplished by ploughing land to

form a series of low narrow ridges, separated by
parallel field drains.
The bedding system is normally used for grassland.
In modern farming, bedding is not considered an

acceptable drainage practice for row crops, because rows
adjacent to the field drains will not drain satisfactorily.
 Land grading is the process of forming the land surface

to predetermined grades, so that each row or surface
slopes lead to its field drain.
 Land grading for surface drainage consists of forming

the landscape by cutting, filling, and smoothing it to
planned continuous surfaces.
 It is a one-time operation, involving the transport of

earth according to specified cuts and fills based on the
predetermined grades.
 Land grading for surface drainage differs from land

levelling for irrigation in that, for drainage, a non-
uniform grade is required.
 •The grades can be varied as much as is necessary to
provide drainage with the least amount of earthmoving.
 •After land grading it is sometimes necessary to break
up the soil which has become compacted by the
construction machinery
 Compared to bedding, land grading reduces the number of
field drains, thus reduces the need for weed control and
maintenance, and enables better land utilization.
Land planning
Land planning is the process of smoothing the land surface

with a land plane to eliminate minor depressions and
irregularities without changing the general topography.
It is frequently applied in conjunction with land grading,

because irregular micro-topography in a flat landscape in
combination with heavy soils can cause substantial crop
losses.
Subsurface Drainage principles
 Subsurface drainage is the removal of excess water from
the soil profile.
 This is normally accomplished by deep open drain or

buried pipe drains.
 Subsurface drainage increases the productivity of poorly

drained soil by lowering the water table, and providing
higher soil aeration.
Theories of open drain/ditch
Deep Open Drain
This type of drainage channel is deeper than the natural

normal drainage channel and usually constructed with an
excavator
Deep Open Drain
It is appropriate for small catchments where the soil
is compact and stable
where a suitable outlet is available to dispose of the
quantity of water collected
where it can be used as alone or with other system (
as outlet of normal surface drain)
Deep open drain has the potential in “turning salt-
affected land into productive”. It directs surface
and subsurface water away from the landscape,
taking with it the salt that has accumulated in the
soil.
Buried Pipe Drain
A network of perforated tubes or pipes is installed
0.8–1.5 m below the soil surface.
The excess water from the root zone flows into the
pipe through the openings
The pipes convey the water to a collector drain.
A gentle slope of the pipe (0.5–1.0%) is provided
toward the collector drain.
The drain pipe may be made of plastic, concrete, or
clay.
The buried pipe lowers the water table to the depth
of the pipe or tiles over the course of time (several
days).
Buried Pipe Drain
Buried pipe drain
Differences of deep open drain and buried
pipe drain
Deep open drain Buried (subsurface) pipe drain

Causes loss of cultivable land, that 1. Causes no loss of cultivable
otherwise could be used for crops land
2 .Restricts the use of machines 2. Does not restrict the use of
3. It requires a large number of machines
bridges or culverts for road 3. Maintenance requirements are
crossing and access to the field very limited
4. Requires frequent
maintenance
Differences of deep open drain and buried pipe
drain
Deep open drain

5. Cost of construction is lower
compared to the cost of buried
pipe system Buried (subsurface) pipe
6. Effective and/or economic life drain
5. Total cost of the system is
is short
higher compared to deep
7. Allows for removal of much open drain due to material
larger volumes of water in a cost, equipment, and skilled
shorter time span than manpower involved
subsurface drainage
6. Effective and/or economic
life is long
7. Allows for removal of lower
volumes of water in a shorter
time span
Classification of drainage theories by basic assumptions
Horizontal flow theories
These approximation theories are based on two assumptions:
(a) that all stream lines in a gravity flow system are horizontal,
and
(b) that the velocity along these streamlines is proportional to

the slope of the free-water surface, but independent of depth
Three field conditions of this kind are:
1. Open ditches that are shallow compared to their spacing
and that penetrate to or are close to an impermeable layer.
2. Open ditches that are excavated in stratified materials.
3. Buried drains under conditions 1 and 2, particularly if the
backfilled trench is more permeable than the undisturbed
material.
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS:
Drainage investigation
 The investigation should provide a clear
understanding of the problem, the kinds and amounts of
practices necessary, and an estimate of the cost and
expected benefits and impacts of the project.
 This information often can be obtained from a

reconnaissance of a small problem area.
 More detailed examinations and surveys are made

where the size of the area, lack of defined drainage
pattern, or such special situations as riparian vegetation
(Plant habitats and communities along the river margins
and banks), characterized by hydrophilic plants.,
wetlands may occur
.
Reconnaissance
The first step in analyzing the problem is:
 to visit the area proposed for drainage.
 determinations of wetlands
The investigator should walk over the area and become

acquainted with:
 the problems,
 topographic conditions, and
 physical features.
The ideal time to do this is immediately after an intensive

rainfall or an irrigation application
Reconnaissance (cont’d)
The investigator can mark low areas and other
important features on a map.
Some field surveys may be needed:
 to identify or locate low areas.

 to determine the average or usual depth of the water
table, as well as the water table level during the growing
season.
 to estimate water table levels based on their farming
experience of the area to be drained
The following items should be noted:
1. Location and extent of any wetlands.

2. The areas in which crops show damage, as
pointed out by the farmer, indicated by the aerial
photograph, or noted in personal observations.
3. Personal observations of unique landscape
features, ecologically significant areas, land use
patterns, operation (land management) aspects, and site
visibility.
4. Topography and size of the watershed area.
5. Size, extent, and ownership of the area being
considered for drainage.
6. Location of the drainage outlet and its condition.
7. Location, condition, and approximate size of existing

waterways.
8. Presence of cultural resources.
9. Potential impacts outside the area being evaluated.
10. General character of soil throughout the area

needing drainage, including land capability, land use,
crops and yields, and salinity or sodicity.
11. Utilities, such as pipelines, roads, culverts, bridges, and
irrigation facilities and their possible effect on the drainage
system
12. Sources of excess water from upslope land or stream
channel overflow and possible disposal areas and control
methods.
13. Condition of areas contributing outside water and
possible treatment needed in these areas to reduce runoff or
erosion.
14. High-water marks or damaging floods and dates of
floods.
15. Type and availability of construction equipment.
16. Feasibility.
 The intensity of this investigation and the makeup of

the investigation partly depend upon the size of the area
and complexity of the problem.
 In all cases, as much information as possible should
be obtained from local farmers and residents. The
investigation must be extensive enough to provide a
clear picture of the size and extent of the drainage
problem
Design survey.
The objective of a survey for design purposes is to obtain :
 elevations,
 topography, and
 other field information necessary to design the system and
prepare plans, specifications, and estimates of quantities
of work to be performed.
Only the field information needed for this purpose should be

gathered
Physical survey
The first major engineering survey job is to determine the
location and adequacy of the drainage outlet.
The capacity of the outlet should be such that the design

flow can be discharged at an elevation at or below the
design hydraulic grade line
The capacity of the outlet also must be such that the

discharge from the project area will not result in damaging
stage increases downstream of the project.
The quality of drainage water and its impact on downstream

areas should be considered.
Topographic survey
Topographic information of the area to be drained must be
obtained.
This information is used in the flatter areas for planning land

forming or for locating field ditches, drains, or other facilities
The information should include
 the location and elevation of the bottom of drainage ways,
 the size of opening and flow line elevations of culverts and

bridges, and any other similar information needed to plan the
drainage system.
Profile survey
The following steps must be followed for profiles where a
ditch already exists:
1. Obtain elevations of the old ditch bottom natural ground

at 100 to 500 foot intervals along the ditch.
Elevations of critical points between stations should also be
taken.
A critical point may be either a high point or a low point that
would affect design or system cost.
2. On existing culverts and bridges along the ditch line,

obtain the location of inlet and outlet elevations, size of
culvert (or size of opening if different), length, alignment
angle with the ditch, and kind of material.
Also, obtain elevations of top of road crossing or structures.
Determination of ditch velocity
Manning's equation is used in determining the average velocity in a ditch section.
R=A/P
Q= AxV V= Q/A
where:
V = velocity (m/s)
n = roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius (m) = A/P
S = slope (m/m)
A = cross-sectional area below hydraulic grade line
(m2)
P = wetted perimeter (m)
Types of open drain systems
 Drains should be located to fit the farm or other land use
operations and should have capacity to handle the runoff and
not cause harmful erosion.
 The drain system should have excess water to flow readily

from the land to the disposal drain. Five common drain
systems are described in this section:
1. Random drain system

2. Parallel drain system
3. Cross slope drain system
4. Bedding
5. Narrow raised beds
Random field drainage system
 The random field drainage system is applied where number of
depressions are distributed at random over a field.
• Often these depressions are large but shallow, and a complete
land-forming operation is not (yet) considered economically
feasible
 The random field drainage system connects the depressions by

means of field drains and evacuates the stagnant water into a
collector drain.
 The system is often applied in situations where far operations are
limited (e.g. on pasture land) or where mechanization is done with
small equipment.
The field drains should be shallow with gentle side slopes so that
they can be crossed with farm machinery.
Parallel field drainage system
 The parallel field drainage system in combination with
proper land forming, is the most effective method of
surface drainage.
 The parallel field drains collect the surface runoff and
discharge it into the collector drain, through which the
water flows towards the main drainage system.
 The spacing of the field drains depends on the size of
fields that can be prepared and harvested economically, on
the tolerance of crops to ponding, and on the amount and
costs of land forming.
 • The system is applicable in flat areas with an irregular
micro-topography and where farm operations require
regular shaped fields.
Cross slope drain system
 This system is used to drain sloping land, to prevent the
accumulation of water from higher land, and to prevent the
concentration of water within a field.
 Reconstructing cross slope drain system field ditches work

best on slopes of less than 2 percent.
 The drain is located across the slope as straight as

topography will permit.
Bedding
 Bedding resembles a system of parallel field ditches with

the intervening land shaped to a raised, rounded surface.
 This drainage system generally is used where slopes are

flat and the soil is slowly permeable and where other types
of drainage are not economically feasible
Narrow raised beds
A narrow bed system has a raised bed wide
enough for single or double cropping rows to
provide an aerated surface profile. This system
facilitates surface water movement and aeration
of the shallow root zone
Drainage runoff
 Runoff is defined as that portion of precipitation which is

not absorbed by the deep soil strata but finds its way into
the stream after meeting the demands of
evapotranspiration, interception, infiltration, surface
storage as well as channel detention.
 Runoff calculations generally begin at the upper end of the

drain and proceed downstream
Factors affecting Runoff
 Rate and volume of runoff from an area are influenced
mainly by two factors:
1) Climatic factors that affect the runoff are:
i. Nature of precipitation( its intensity; frequency;
duration; distribution and direction of storm
movement)
ii. Interception
iii. Evaporation and
iv. Transpiration
Factors affecting Runoff (cont’d)
2) Physiographic factors consist of both watershed
characteristics and channel characteristics
Watershed characteristics:
i. Size
ii. Shape
iii. Slope
iv. Orientation
v. Land use
vi. Infiltration characteristics
vii. Soil texture
viii. Land topography
Factors affecting Runoff (cont’d)
Channel characteristics relate mostly to hydraulic

properties of the channel that governs the water flow.
These factors include:
i. Size of channel
ii. Slope of channel
iii. Cross section of channel
iv. Roughness coefficient of channel
Surface runoff is produced when the rainfall intensity

exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil
Estimation of Runoff rate
Rational method
In this method, the peak rate of runoff is given by the

equation as:
Q=CIA/360
Where, Q=peak runoff rate, (m3/sec)
I= rainfall intensity, (mm/hr)
C= runoff coefficient
A= catchment area generating runoff, (hectares)
Runoff coefficient is defined as the ratio of volume of

stream flow above the base flow to the volume of rainfall
This container is placed
horizontally on an open area
in a field
During a rain shower, the container collects the

water.
Suppose that when the rain stops, the depth of
water contained in the pan is 10 mm
QUESTION
What is the total amount of water received by a field of

5 ha under a rainfall of 15 mm?Rainfall is often
expressed in millimeters per day (mm/day) which
represents the total depth of rainwater (mm), during
24 hours. It is the sum of all the rain showers which
occurred during these 24 hours.
Rainfall intensity
 The rainfall intensity is the depth of water (in mm)
received during a shower divided by the duration of the
shower (in hours). It is expressed in millimetres of water
depth per hour (mm/hour).
For example, a rain shower lasts 3.5 hours and supplies 35 mm of

water.
The intensity of this shower
is
Low rainfall intensity
The low intensity rainfall has finer drops.
The soil surface is not sealed, the rainwater infiltrates more easily and surface runoff is
limited
High rainfall intensity
Suppose the same amount of water (35 mm) is supplied in one hour only, thus by a
shower of higher intensity:
Although the same amount of water (35 mm) has been supplied by both showers, the
high intensity shower is less profitable to the crops. The high intensity rainfall usually
has big drops that fall with more force on the soil surface.
In fine textured soil especially, the soil aggregates break down rapidly into fine particles
that seal the soil surface.
The infiltration is then reduced, and surface runoff increases
Example on runoff
1. Surface drainage should be planned for a new
agricultural farm to drain out irrigation tail-water
and seasonal rainfall runoff. Maximum rainfall
intensity at the site in 20 years record is 35 mm/h.
The tertiary drain would have to carry runoff from 4
ha land. The secondary drain would have to carry
third of tertiary, and the main drain to carry
discharge of four secondary drain (of similar flow).
Determine the design discharge capacity of the (a)
tertiary, (b) secondary, and (c) main drain.
Run off (cont’d)
The time of concentration is defined as the time interval
between the beginning of the rain and the moment when the
whole area above the point of the outlet contributes to the
runoff.
 The time of concentration can be estimated by the
following formula:
Tc =0.02L0.77 S-0.385
Example on Tc
An irrigation scheme of 100 ha with sandy loam soils and a

general slope of less than 5% has a main drain of 2.5 km
long with a difference in elevation of 10 m. What is the time
of concentration?
Sub-surface drainage
 The principal function of subsurface drainage is to

prevent, eliminate, or control a high water table.
 Lowering the water table can improve:

i. growing conditions for crops,
ii. the condition of the soil surface, and
iii. trafficability on the field as well as around the
farmstead.
iv. It also facilitates tillage practices.
Some tests are performed within soil profile in order to
know the level of water table.
Determination of Hydraulic conductivity
 The hydraulic conductivity, or the soils’ ability to transmit water,
is an important factor in drainage flow.
 Hydraulic conductivity is very variable, depending on the

actual soil conditions.
 In clear sands it can range from 1-1 000 m/day, while in clays
it can range from 0.001-1m/day.
 Several methods for field measurement of hydraulic

conductivity have been established.
 One of the best-known field methods for use when a high

water table is present is Hooghoudt’s single soil auger hole
method.
Auger hole test method
 The auger-hole test measures the average horizontal hydraulic
conductivity of the soil profile from the static water table to the
bottom of the hole.
 This test can be run in the presence of a barrier either at or

below the bottom of the hole
 A vertical auger hole is drilled to the water table and then

drilled a further 1-1.5 m depth or until an impermeable layer or
a layer with a very low permeability is reached.
 The water level in the hole is lowered by pumping or by using

buckets.
 The rate of recharge of the water table is then timed
CHAPTER THREE
FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOIL

Occurrence of ground water
 When water is added to dry or unsaturated soil it is
held in the voids between particles by capillary forces.
The water will descend until it is stopped by some
impervious layer, such as rock or highly impervious clay.
The water can then flow laterally through the voids.
When the saturated layer yields water in economic
quantities, it is called an aquifer and the hole made into
it could be developed into a well.
Sometimes groundwater is trapped under an impervious
layer. An aquifer thus located is called a confined
aquifer.
Ground water terminologies
 Well
A bored, drilled or driven shaft, or a dug hole whose depth is greater than
the largest surface dimension and whose purpose is to reach underground
water supplies to inject, extract or monitor water
 Artesian Well
A well tapping a confined aquifer. Water in the well rises above the top
of the aquifer under artesian pressure, but does not necessarily reach the
land surface; a flowing artesian well is a well in which the water level is
above the land surface.
 Aquifer
An underground geological formation of sand, soil, gravel and rock able
to store and yield water.
Ground water terminologies (cont’d)
 Unconfined Aquifer
An aquifer in which the water table is at or near atmosphere pressure and is the
upper boundary of the aquifer. Because the aquifer is not under pressure the
water level in a well is the same as the water table outside the well.
 Confined Aquifer
An aquifer that exists where the groundwater is bounded between layers of
impermeable substances like clay or dense rock. When tapped by a well, water
in confined aquifers is forced up, sometimes above the soil surface. This is how
a flowing artesian well is formed. Also known as artesian or pressure aquifers.
 Cone of Depression
The zone around a well in an unconfined aquifer that is normally saturated, but
becomes unsaturated as a well is pumped, leaving an area where the water table
dips down to form a cone shape.
The shape of the cone is influenced by porosity and the water yield or pumping
rate of the well. The land surface overlying the cone of depression is referred to
as the area of influence.
Q = KA (h1-h2)/L
Rate of flow is proportional to the

hydraulic gradient Δh=(h1-h2)/L
Piezometer
 Piezometer is one of the simplest forms of manometers
(A simple manometer is one which consists of a glass tube,
whose one end is connected to a point where pressure is to be
measured and the other end is open to atmosphere). It can be
used for measuring moderate pressures of liquids.
 The setup of piezometer consists of a glass tube, inserted in

the wall of a vessel or of a pipe or ground. The tube extends
vertically upward to such a height that liquid can freely rise in
it without overflowing. The pressure at any point in the liquid
is indicated by the height of the liquid in the tube above that
point.
 A piezometer is designed to measure static pressures
 Limitations of Piezometer
1. Piezometers can measure gauge pressures only. It is not
suitable for measuring negative pressures.
 A piezometer is ‘either a device used to measure liquid pressure in a system by
measuring the height to which a column of the liquid rises against gravity, or a device
which measures the pressure (more precisely, the piezometric head) of groundwater
at a specific point.’
Water Balance in a Drained Soil
In a crop-soil system, the term “water balance”
describes the fate of precipitation and various
components of water flow in and around the soil profile
Drainage affects soil-water, and thus other
components of the water balance are also affected
Water balance on a soil profile with good natural
drainage and in an artificially drained soil profile is
depicted in
Water Balance in a Drained Soil cont’d
 In the typical natural drainage system, precipitation (rainfall,
snowmelt) (P), irrigation (IR) (if applied) are the major water
input to the system affecting surface runoff (R), crop
evapotranspiration (ET), deep percolation (DP), and changes in
soil-water storage (S).
P + IR - R - ET - DP = S
 If the deep percolation continues, there is an opportunity for

the water table to rise.
 It is evident from the water balance that the amount of deep
percolation depends on the extent to which the precipitation
and/or irrigation input to the soil is reduced by R, ET, and S.
Water Balance in a Drained Soil cont’d
 Under natural rainfall condition, water balance can be
expressed as:
 P = ET + R + D or D = P - ET - R
where
P = rainfall rate (mm/d)
ET = evapotranspiration rate (mm/d)
R = surface runoff amount, mm/d (if surface runoff is
feasible)
D = deep percolation or subsurface drainage amount
(mm/d)
Estimation of Drainage Requirement or Drainage
Coefficient
For estimation of drainage requirement (or drainage intensity, or drainage
coefficient), following steps may be followed:
collect long-term rainfall and other weather data for the project area,
calculate daily average rainfall, evaporation, and evapotranspiration rate

for the target crop season
 perform water-balance
 Example
 An agricultural soil contains 47% pore space, and the
moisture content after gravity drainage is 39% (by
volume).
Find the void ratio, drainable porosity, and drainable
water volume from a 20 m × 15 m plot having 1.0 m
root zone depth.
Twizeyimana Tharcisse
BsC in Soil and Water Management (UR-CAVM/Busogo
campus)
MSc student in agricultural engineering with
specialization in Soil and water Engineering(UR-
CAVM/Nyagatare campus )
Email:cisset54@yahoo.fr
Tel:0788709323
Darcy's law
 One of the fundamental equations that govern
groundwater flow is called Darcy’s equation
 Q = K A dh/dl
 where:
 Q = discharge [L3/T]
 A = cross sectional area [L2]
 K = hydraulic conductivity [L/t]
 dh/dl= hydraulic gradient or change in hydraulic
head (h) per change in distance
Darcy's law
Darcy's law (cont’d)
 this equation states:

Discharge (i.e., volumetric flow) through a cross
sectional area is directly and linearly proportional to
the hydraulic gradient, and the constant of
proportionality that relates discharge to the hydraulic
gradient is a quantity called the hydraulic conductivity
Darcy's law (cont’d)
Darcy's law is an equation that describes the flow
of a fluid through a porous medium.
The law was formulated by Henry Darcy based on
the results of experiments on the flow of water
through beds of sand, forming the basis of
hydrogeology, a branch of earth sciences.
what drives groundwater flow?
water flows from high elevation to low elevation and from
high pressure to low pressure, gradients in potential
energy drive groundwater flow from high to low head
how do you measure the head or potential? => drill an
observation well, the elevation of the water level in the
well is a measure of the potential energy at the opening of
the well
Capillary flow above the water table
Changes in degrees of saturation for different zones of soil
Capillary flow above the water table
 The capillaryfringe is the subsurface layer in
which groundwater seeps up from a water table by
capillary action to fill pores. Pores at the base of
the capillary fringe are filled with water due to
tension saturation.
Critical water table depth measurement of
hydraulic conductivity
 To understand the mechanism how drainage
influence the water balance in the soil and
control the subsurface hydrology,
we should understand the basic concepts
regarding soil (pore space) water and
their retention or release characteristics
Critical water table depth measurement of
hydraulic conductivity
 Moisture Concentration
The moisture concentration is defined as the volume of
water per unit volume of soil.
 Pore Water
Water that is held in the soil pores is termed as pore
water.
 Drainable Pore Space or Drainable Porosity
(Pd)
Drainable pore space or drainable porosity is the air-
filled pores present when thesoil is drained to field
capacity (i.e., after gravity drainage). Alternatively,
the macroporespaces which releases or drains water
due to gravity drainage is termed as drainable
porosity. This can be estimated as:
 Pd (%) = soil porosity (%) − soil moisture at
field capacity (%)
Drainable Porosity
 It is influenced by soil texture and structure. Coarse-
textured (sandy) soils have large drainable porosity,
whereas fine-textured (clayey) soils have smaller
drainable porosities. This implies that for a certain
amount of water drained, a sandy soil shows a smaller
water-table drop than that of a clay soil.
 By definition,
Drainable porosity (%) = (Volume of drainable
pore spaces in total volume of soil)×100/total
volume of soil
Drainable water is that water which can be drained
from a saturated soil by gravity or free drainage.
The amount of drainable water in the soil depends on
the amount of “drainable pore space” or drainable
porosity.
 In drainage system, drainable water is expressed in
units of depth (meter or millimeter).
 Expressing drainable water in this way assumes that its
depth applied to a unit area (i.e., square meter or
hectare).
 The volume of water from this depth can be computed
simply by multiplying the depth of drainable water by
the area of drainage (area of interest), making sure to
keep the units consistent.
Drainable water
 Drainable water” can be measured directly from a

predetermined drainage area.
 It can also be estimated indirectly from drainable
porosity, as:
 Drainable water (m3) = drainable porosity (%)
×drainable volume (m3)
 Dw = Pd ×Dv.
Water Balance in a Drained Soil (cont’d)
 In a crop-soil system, the term “water balance”

describes the fate of precipitation and various
components of water flow in and around the soil
profile.
 Drainage affects soil-water, and thus other
components of the water balance are also affected.
 Subsurface drainage influences the hydrology of

heavily drained regions significantly and permanently,
by substantially reducing surface runoff, shortening
periods of surface pondage, and lowering of water
table.
 Water balance on a soil profile with good natural
drainage and in an artificially drained soil profile is
depicted in
 In the typical natural drainage system, precipitation

(rainfall, snowmelt) (P), irrigation(IR) (if applied) are
the major water input to the system affecting
surfacerunoff (R), crop evapotranspiration (ET), deep
percolation (DP), and changes in soil-water storage (S).
P + IR − R − ET − DP = S
Schematic of water balance (b) natural drained soil
 Example
 An agricultural soil contains 47% pore space, and the
moisture content after gravity drainage is 39% (by
volume).
 Find the void ratio, drainable porosity, and drainable
water volume from a 20 m ×15 m plot having 1.0 m
root zone depth.
SOLUTION
Soil salinity control
 Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil; the process
of increasing the salt content is known
as salinization. Salts occur naturally within soils and
water. Salination can be caused by natural processes
such as mineral weathering or by the gradual
withdrawal of an ocean. It can also come about through
artificial processes such as irrigation and road salt
Soil salinity control (cont’d)
Soil salinity control relates to controlling the problem of
soil salinity and reclaiming salinized agricultural land.
The aim of soil salinity control is to prevent soil
degradation by salinization and reclaim already salty
(saline) soils. Soil reclamation is also called soil
improvement, rehabilitation, remediation,
recuperation, or amelioration.
Soil salinity control (cont’d)
 The primary man-made cause of salinization is

irrigation. River water or groundwater used in
irrigation contains salts, which remain behind in the
soil after the water has evaporated.
 The primary method of controlling soil salinity is to
permit 10-20% of the irrigation water to leach the soil,
be drained and discharged through an appropriate
drainage system. The salt concentration of the drainage
water is normally 5 to 10 times higher than that of the
irrigation water, thus salt export matches salt import
and it will not accumulate.
Leaching requirement
To estimate the leaching requirement, both the
irrigation water salinity (ECw) and the crop tolerance
to soil salinity (ECe) must be known. The water
salinity can be obtained from laboratory analysis while
the ECe should be estimated from appropriate crop
tolerance data
 where:
 LR=the minimum leaching requirement needed to
control salts within the tolerance (ECe) of the crop
with ordinary surface methods of irrigation
 ECw=salinity of the applied irrigation water in dS/m
 ECe=average soil salinity tolerated by the crop as
measured on a soil saturation extract.
The total annual depth of water that
needs to be applied
The total annual depth of water that needs to be
applied
 The total annual depth of water that needs to be
applied to meet both the crop demand and leaching
requirement can be estimated from equation (7):
where:
 AW=depth of applied water (mm/year)
 ET=total annual crop water demand (mm/year)
 LR=leaching requirement expressed as a fraction
(leaching fraction)
EXAMPLE 3 - LEACHING REQUIREMENT CALCULATION
 A maize crop is irrigated by furrow irrigation. The crop

is planted in a uniform loam soil and river water, which
has an ECw = 1.2 dS/m, is used for irrigation. The crop
evapotranspiration (ET) is 800 mm/season. The
irrigation application efficiency is 0.65. Therefore the
total amount of water that must be applied to meet
crop ET demand is 800 mm/0.65 = 1230 mm/season.
How much additional water must be applied for
leaching?
EXAMPLE 3(cont….)
 Given:
ECw=1.2 dS/m
ECe=2.5 dS/m ( for maize at a 90 percent yield
potential)
ECe=1.7 dS/m (for maize at a 100 percent yield potential)
Unit 4:Drainage requirement
Plant processes.
 A basic understanding of some major plant processes
will help you understand the causes behind specific
growth problems, and what precautions can be taken
to solve them.
Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O + Light energy → C6H12O6 (sugar) + 6O2
Photosynthesis is the process by which sugars are

manufactured in a plant:
Importantly, if carbon dioxide, water or light energy are in
limited supply, then photosynthesis will be restricted. The
end result is a reduction in growth due to insufficient sugars
being available for respiration.
Photosynthesis (cont’s)
Hence the following factors will have a
negative impact on photosynthesis:
1. Restricted carbon dioxide supply due to poor
ventilation.
2. Restricted light supply due to inadequate lighting or
overcrowded foliage.
3. Insufficient water supply due to poor system design
or nutrient management
Respiration
 Respiration is the process of converting
sugars that are produced during
photosynthesis, into adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). ATP is the energy source that is used
by plants for the following processes:
1. Growth in buds, shoots, root hairs and root
tips.
2. Nutrient uptake.
3. Movement of sugars into the phloem for
distribution to other areas of the plant.
Respiration (cont’s)
Respiration (cont’s)
Transpiration
Transpiration is the process of water evaporating from
a plant. This loss of water effectively draws water,
nutrients and oxygen from the growing medium and
distributes them throughout the plant.
Factors restricting transpiration are:
1. Highhumidity.
2. Low air temperature.
3. Inadequate lighting.
Causes of excessive rates of transpiration are very bright

light, high temperatures and strong winds.
Germination
Germination (cont’d)
Germination is the process by which plants emerge

from seeds and begin growth.
The most important environmental conditions that
need to be at the right level are
water, temperature, oxygen, and light or darkness.
Let’s discuss each of these environmental conditions.
Water – The germination process highly depends on
the amount of water present in the soil. Because seed
coat is usually dry, it needs to be moistened by water
to break its coating
Germination (cont’d)
Temperature – Each kind of seed needs a different

range of temperatures to germinate. Some seeds
germinate in cold temperatures, while others require
hot temperatures for germination.
Oxygen – seeds use oxygen during metabolism when
germinating. Majority of the seeds are buried in the
soil.
Light or darkness – It is not an important factor to
consider. Because the majority of the seeds have no
any effect of light or darkness.
Process of Germination
Germination of seed follows four main changes that are

occurred in steps. These steps are imbibition,
respiration, Mobilization of food reserves, and
development of the embryo into a seedling. Let’s
discuss each of these steps in detail.
Plant structure and function
Plant cells
Plant cells
 Unlike animal cells, plant cells are surrounded by a

cellulose cell wall. This helps to give each cell a
definite shape. Also, plant cells usually have a large
fluid filled vacuole, which allows them to be much
larger than animal cells. Apart from this the cytoplasm
is similar to that of animal cells, with a nucleus and
many small specialised structures such as
mitochondria. Mitochondria are the sites of
respiration.
Osmosis
 If animal cells are placed into water or a dilute

solution, excess water enters by osmosis and the
cytoplasm of the cell swells, stretching and rupturing
the cell membrane. The plant cell wall stretches
slightly, but it resists the entry of excess water and
prevents the cell from bursting. When a cell wall is
slightly stretched it cell is firm or turgid. Turgid cells
give tissues strength. If a plant loses water the cells
lose their turgidity and the plant wilts.
Organelles
 Electron microscopes have shown that cells contain

many tiny structures each with specific functions to
perform. As they have complex structures they are
like tiny organs, and so are called organelles.
Understanding cell structures and their functions
and the chemical processes that take place allows
scientists to select and manipulate the properties of
plants and the products that can be obtained from
them.
Tissues
Groups of similar specialised cells form tissues, for

example:
 parenchyma - large thin walled packing cells that can
be used for storage;
 palisade and spongy mesophyll - cells packed with
chloroplasts for photosynthesis;
 xylem − long thin hollow cells with woody thickened
walls used for transporting water and mineral ions in
solution and helping to support the plant.
Structure and function
The main structures or ‘organs’ found in plants are the

leaves, stems and roots. They are made up from
groups of specialised tissues that have structures
suited to the jobs they perform. The table below
summarises the main features of these structures and
their functions.
Structure Function
Leaves Short distances for gases to diffuse.

Large area for absorption of light.
Thin with a large surface area Leaves are a plant's food factory. They
are the main site of photosynthesis, where
Cells contain chlorophyll in chloroplasts. sugars are made from water and carbon
dioxide, using sunlight energy that has
been absorbed by chlorophyll.
Stems
Long and cylindrical. Woody tissues - Support the leaves, flowers and fruit.
xylem and fibres (sclerenchyma) - add Can bend or resist the wind.
strength. Transport water, minerals to leaves and
Contain xylem and phloem (in ‘veins’). sugars to roots, flowers, fruit and roots.
Roots
Branch extensively through the soil. Provide anchorage in the soil.
 Root hairs - provide huge surface area. Enable absorption of water and
Contain xylem and phloem (in ‘veins’). nutrients.
Root tip - area of cell division. Enable transport of water and nutrients.
Root cap - covers the root tip. Grow into the soil.
Protects and lubricates the growing
root.
Factors controlling production
 Genetic factors
 The increase in crop yields and other desirable
characters are related to Genetic make up of plants.
 High yielding ability
 Early maturity
 Resistance to lodging
 Drought flood and salinity tolerance
 Tolerance to insect pests and diseases
 Chemical composition of grains (oil content,
protein content )
 Quality of grains (fineness, coarseness)
 Quality of straw (sweetness, juiciness)
External factors
 A. Climatic
 B. Edaphic
 C. Biotic
 D. Phsiographic
 E. Socio-economic
CLIMATIC FACTORS
 Nearly 50 % of yield is attributed to the influence of
climatic factors.The following are the atmospheric
weather variables which influences the crop
production.
 1. Precipitation
 2. Temperature
 3. Atmospheric humidity
 4. Solar radiation
 5. Wind velocity
 6. Atmospheric gases
Soil environment and aeration
requirement
Why is soil drainage
important?
Drainage ensures that the soil is properly
aerated. If you have excess or standing water
it can choke your
crops. Drainage reduces soil and nutrient
loss from runoff and can help
avoid soil erosion. Drainage on hill slopes
helps to reduce the risk of soil slippage
The composition of the soil
Soil environment
The principal components in soil air are the
same as those in the atmosphere. The
concentrations of N2 and O2 in the soil air
are often similar to atmospheric values,
while the concentrations of CO2 in the soil
is much higher .For atmospheric air these
percentages are N 2, 78.1 %; 02' 20.95 %;
and CO2, 1.03 %
Soil Air
Soil air is a continuation of the
atmospheric air. Unlike the other
components, it is constant state of motion
from the soil pores into the atmosphere
and from the atmosphere into the pore
space. This constant movement or
circulation of air in the soil mass resulting
in the renewal of its component gases is
known as soil aeration.
Composition of Soil Air
The soil air contains a number of gases of which

nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour
are the most important. Soil air constantly moves
from the soil pores into the atmosphere and from the
atmosphere into the pore space. Soil air and
atmospheric air differ in the compositions. Soil air
contains a much greater proportion of carbon dioxide
and a lesser amount of oxygen than atmospheric air.
At the same time, soil air contains a far great amount
of water vapour than atmospheric air. The amount of
nitrogen in soil air is almost the same as in the
atmosphere.
Composition of soil and atmospheric air
Percentage by volume
Nitrogen Oxygen Carbon dioxide
Soil air 79.2 20.6 0.3
Atmospheric air 79.9 20.97 0.03

Factors Affecting the Composition of Soil
Air
Nature and condition of soil
Type of crop
Microbial activity
Seasonal variation
Nature and condition of soil
The quantity of oxygen in soil air is less than that in
atmospheric air. The amount of oxygen also depends
upon the soil depth. The oxygen content of the air in
lower layer is usually less than that of the surface soil.
This is possibly due to more readily diffusion of the
oxygen from the atmosphere into the surface soil than
in the subsoil. Light texture soil or sandy soil contains
much higher percentage than heavy soil. The
concentration of CO2 is usually greater in subsoil
probably due to more sluggish aeration in lower layer
than in the surface soil.
Type of crop
Plant roots require oxygen, which they take

from the soil air and deplete the
concentration of oxygen in the soil air.
Soils on which crops are grown contain
more CO2 than fallow lands. The amount
of CO2 is usually much greater near the
roots of plants than further away. It may be
due to respiration by roots.
Microbial activity
The microorganisms in soil require oxygen
for respiration and they take it from the
soil air and thus deplete its concentration
in the soil air. Decomposition of organic
matter produces CO2 because of increased
microbial activity. Hence, soils rich in
organic matter contain higher percentage
of CO2.
Seasonal variation
The quantity of oxygen is usually higher in
dry season than during the monsoon.
Because soils are normally drier during the
summer months, opportunity for gaseous
exchange is greater during this period.
This results in relatively high O2 and low
CO2 levels. Temperature also influences
the CO2 content in the soil air. High
temperature during summer season
encourages microorganism activity which
results in higher production of CO2
Aeration requirement
 Plant and root growth
 Microorganism population and activity
 Formation of toxic material
 Water and nutrient absorption
 Development of plant diseases
Plant and root growth
 Soil aeration is an important factor in

the normal growth of plants. The supply
of oxygen to roots in adequate quantities
and the removal of CO2 from the soil
atmosphere are very essential for healthy
plant growth.
Plant and root growth
When the supply of oxygen is inadequate, the
plant growth either retards or ceases completely
as the accumulated CO2 hampers the growth of
plant roots. The abnormal effect of insufficient
aeration on root development is most noticeable
on the root crops. Abnormally shaped roots of
these plants are common on the compact and
poorly aerated soils. The penetration and
development of root are poor. Such undeveloped
root system cannot absorb sufficient moisture
and nutrients from the soil
Microorganism population and activity:
 The microorganisms living in the soil also require
oxygen for respiration and metabolism. Some of
the important microbial activities such as the
decomposition of organic matter, nitrification,
Sulphur oxidation etc depend upon oxygen
present in the soil air. The deficiency of air
(oxygen) in soil slows down the rate of microbial
activity.
 For example, the decomposition of organic matter
is retarded and nitrification arrested. The
microorganism population is also drastically
affected by poor aeration.
Formation of toxic material
Poor aeration results in the development of
toxin and other injurious substances such as
ferrous oxide, H2S gas, CO2 gas etc in the
soil.
Water and nutrient absorption
A deficiency of oxygen has been found to
check the nutrient and water absorption by
plants. The energy of respiration is utilized
in absorption of water and nutrients.
Under poor aeration condition (this
condition may arise when soil is water
logged), plants exhibit water and nutrient
deficiency
Development of plant diseases
Insufficient aeration of the soil also leads to
the development of diseases. For example,
wilt of gram and dieback of citrus and
peach.
Diagnosis and improvement of salt affected soils
Some visual symptoms can be used to help diagnose
these problems, but ultimately soil and irrigation water
analyses are the best way to make an accurate diagnosis.
When salinity is suspected to be caused by a high water
table, you may be able to measure ground water depth
by boring holes with an auger. If free water collects in
holes less than 4 to 5 feet deep, a drainage problem is
indicated.
Plants growing in saline soils may appear water stressed.
In some cases, a white crust is visible on a saline soil
surface. Salt-affected soils may inhibit seed germination
and cause irregular emergence of crop seedlings,
particularly in sensitive crops such as beans or onions.
Plants sprinkler irrigated with saline water often show
symptoms of leaf burn, particularly on young foliage.
Causal Factors
 Geology: weathering of primary minerals, marine

sediments, etc
 Climate: evaporation exceeds precipitation
 Irrigation: water with moderate to high TDS
 Water table: near soil surface
 Drainage: poor
 Other?
Terminology
 Soluble salts – major dissolved inorganic solutes

 Salinity hazard - total soluble salt content
 Sodium hazard - relative proportion of
exchangeable sodium (Na+) to calcium (Ca++) and
magnesium (Mg++) ions
 Alkalinity - soil pH >7.0; “basic” soil, problems
usually start at pH >7.8 as nutrient deficiencies
 Ion specific effects - effect of chloride (Cl-),
sodium (Na+), or boron (B) on plants not due to
osmotic stress
Situation in which drainage problems exist
drainage problems:
 Salinization
 waterlogging
 water ponding
Salinization
Salinity and Osmotic Potential
Salinity is correlated to osmotic potential, which is
the primary cause of plant damage, and
death.Osmotic potential causes dissolved
constituents in soil to try to retain water, so plants
have to compete with salt for water. The presence of
excessive salts in soils causes plants to prematurely
suffer drought stress even though substantial water
may be present in thesoil.Osmotic potential is a
direct result of the combined concentrations of
dissolved Na, Ca, K, and Mg cations, and Cl–1, SO 4
–2, HCO 3 –1, and CO3–2 anions which are common
constituents in salty water.

waterlogging
An agricultural land is said to be waterlogged, when its
productivity gets affected by the high water table. The
productivity of land in fact, gets affected when the root
zone of the plants get flooded with water, and thus
become ill-aerated. Ill-aeration reduces crop yield, as
explained below:
The life of a plant, in fact, depends upon the nutrients
like nitrates, and the form in which the nitrates are
consumed by the plants is produced by the bacteria,
under a process called nitrification. these bacteria
need oxygen for their survival.
waterlogging
The supply of oxygen gets cutoff when the land becomes
ill aerated, resulting in the death of these bacteria, and
fall in the production of plant’s food (i.e. nitrates) and
consequent reduction in the plant growth, which
reduces the crop yield. Apart from ill-aeration of the
plants, many other problems are created by water-
logging, as discussed below:
 the normal cultivation operations, such as tilling,
ploughing, etc. cannot be easily carried out in wet soils.
 Certain water loving plants like grasses, weeds, etc. grow
profusely and luxuriantly in water-logged lands, thus
affecting and interfering with the growth of the crops
waterlogging
 Water-logging also leads to salinity, as explained below:
If the water table has risen up, or if the plant roots
happen to come within the capillary fringe, water is
continuously evaporated by capillarity. Thus, a
continuous upward flow of water from the water table
to the land-surface, getsestablished. With this upward
flow, the salts which are present in the water, also rise
towards the surface, resulting in the deposition of salts
which are present in the root zone of the crops. The
concentration of these alkali salts present in the root
zone of the crops has a corroding effect on the roots,
which reduces the osmotic activity of the
waterlogging
 plants and checks the plant growth, and the plant
ultimately fades away. Such soils are called saline
soils. From the above discussion, it becomes evident
that the water-logging ultimately leads to salinity and
water-logging are treated as atwin problem “salinity
and water logging”.
 Symptoms which develop under circumstances of
water logging are yellowing, reddish, or stippled
(dotted) appearance of the leaves.
Plant response to salinity
Plants can only grow and produce when their cells
are bathed by water and permeated by it. If the soil
water is in short supply or difficult to be extracted
from the soil, the plant may not make up its
transpiration losses and may suffer from drought,
wilting and death. Soil salinity gives rise to the
osmotic withdrawal of water thereby creating
water stress to plants.
Response of plants to saline conditions
Salinity affects plants in different ways
such as osmotic effects, specific-ion
toxicity and/or nutritional disorders. The
extent by which one mechanism affects the
plant over the others depends upon many
factors including the species, genotype,
plant age, ionic strength and composition
of the salinizing solution, and the organ in
question.
Soil response to excess water
and salinity
Excess water cause water logging conditions, soil
may be ill drained and causes following harmful
effects
 In low lying areas excess water if cannot be carried

away as surface runoff causes water logged condition
which affects aeration and soil temperature.
 The fine texture soils due to poor permeability the
water cannot move downward fast enough and
accumulates on the surface, obstructing aeration. In
sandy soil if heavy irrigation is given the water will
rapidly percolate down and will be wasted.
Excess water cause water logging conditions, soil
may be ill drained and causes following harmful
effects (cont’s)
 The water table may be high and the additional water
accumulates and chokes the air spaces and saturates
the surface and sub-soil.
 Many toxic salts affecting water absorption by roots
and causes damage to crops.
 Agricultural operation viz. inter cultivation cannot be
carried out properly.
 Weeds, which compete for nutrients, space and light,
grow rapidly and interfere, crop growth and cultural
operations.
 Due to excess water structure of soil get affected.
Effects of Salinity on Soil Physical Properties
Effects of Sodium and Sodicity on Soil Physical
Properties :
Sodium has the opposite effect of salinity on
soils. The primary physical processes
associated with high sodium
concentrations are soil dispersion and clay
platelet and aggregate swelling. The forces
that bind clay particles together are
disrupted when too many large sodium
ions come between them. When this
separation occurs, the clay particles
expand, causing swelling and soil
dispersion.
Effects of Sodium and Sodicity on Soil
Physical Properties (cont’s)
Soil dispersion causes clay particles to
plug soil pores, resulting in reduced soil
permeability. When soil is repeatedly
wetted and dried and clay dispersion
occurs, it then reforms and solidifies into
almost cement-like soil with little or no
structure. The three main problems
caused by sodium-induced dispersion
are reduced infiltration, reduced
hydraulic conductivity, and surface
crusting.
Infiltration
Soil dispersion hardens soil and blocks
water infiltration, making it difficult for
plants to establish and grow. The major
implications associated with decreased
infiltration due to sodium-induced
dispersion include reduced plant
available water and increased runoff
and soil erosion.
Hydraulic Conductivity
Soil dispersion not only reduces the amount of
water entering the soil, but also affects hydraulic
conductivity of soil. Hydraulic conductivity refers to
the rate at which water flows through soil. For
instance, soils with well-defined structure will
contain a large number of macropores, cracks, and
fissures which allow for relatively rapid flow of water
through the soil. When sodium-induced soil
dispersion causes loss of soil structure, the hydraulic
conductivity is also reduced. If water cannot pass
through the soil, then the upper layer can become
swollen and water logged
Surface Crusting
Surface Crusting
Surface crusting is a characteristic of

sodium affected soils. The primary causes
of surface crusting are:
1) physical dispersion caused by impact of
raindrops or irrigation water, and
2) 2) chemical dispersion, which depends
on the ratio of salinity and sodicity of
the applied water.
Surface Crusting (cont’s)
Surface crusting due to rainfall is greatly
enhanced by sodium induced clay
dispersion. When clay particles disperse
within soil water, they plug macropores in
surface soil by two means. First, they block
avenues for water and roots to move through
the soil. Second, they form a cement like
surface layer when the soil dries. The
hardened upper layer, or surface crust,
restricts water infiltration and plant
emergence.
ASSIGNMENT
Discuss about:
1.Diagnosis and improvement of

salt affected soils
2.Situation in which drainage
problems exist
UNIT 5: DRAINAGE SYSTEM
5.1.Investigation procedure
Investigation procedure
 Drainage projects require survey and investigation
of site conditions and study of historical data to
determine t their feasibility and for design.
 The extent of investigation required for each

project depends on the investigator' s experience in
the area and the amount of data already available:
 Existing data
 Aerial photosraphs
 Maps
 Surveys
Existing data
Use of existing data, such as maps, plans, and records,
and the experience of trained personnel saves
considerable time in the investigation drainage
projects.
Aerial photographs
The more up-to-date they are the more useful they will
be.
Maps
Maps which show detailed and recent topographic data
a r e the most valuable.
Surveys
Old drainage surveys and maps are often available and
generally contain useful information. These are
usually available through the drainage d i s t r i c t ,
county clerk or county engineer.
Recommended procedure
 The following items are considered to be the
minimum required. Modification may be needed
for th e project under consideration:
1. Assemble and evaluate existing data.
2. Prepare a work map of the project showing
watershed boundaries, existing streams, old
ditches and drains , physical features, and other
pertinent information.
3. Obtain or develop a generalized soil and simple
land use map of the project .
4. Determine status of any state, federal , or local
program which will have an effect on the project.
5. Make an engineering reconnaissance of the
project. Observe existing drains and
ditches, bridges, topographic and farm
conditions, and ground water levels.
6. Determine the adequacy of outlets for
drainage improvements.
7. Make the following determinations by evaluating the

information gained from the engineering
reconnaissance, and the material listed in items 1,2
and 3 above:
a. Develop a tentative plan of improvement.
b. Determine the approximate locations of the mains
and principal laterals- evaluate adequacy of present
locations.
c . Prepare cost estimate- consider clearing, excavation,
spreading of spoil , erosion control, bridges, culverts
and other structures,pipelines, e t c .
5.2.Moisture holding capacity in the root zone
Simply defined soil water holding
capacity is the amount of water that a given
soil can hold for crop use.
Soil texture and organic matter are the key
components that determine soil water
holding capacity. In terms of soil texture,
those made up of smaller particle sizes, such
as in the case of silt and clay, have larger
surface area.
Moisture holding capacity in the root zone
 The larger the surface area the easier it is for the soil to
hold onto water so it has a higher water holding
capacity. Sand in contrast has large particle sizes which
results in smaller surface area. The water holding
capacity for sand is low.
Soil organic matter (SOM) is another factor that can
help increase water holding capacity.
Moisture holding capacity in the root zone
Soil organic matter has a natural

magnetism to water. If the farm increases
the percentage of soil organic matter, the
soil water holding capacity will increase.
SOM is decayed material that originated
from a living organism. SOM can be
increased by adding plant or animal
material.
SOIL WATER STORAGE CAPACITY AND
AVAILABLE SOIL MOISTURE
SOIL WATER STORAGE
For irrigation the soil water storage (SWS)
capacity is defined as the total amount of
water that is stored in the soil within the
plant’s root zone.
The soil texture and the crop rooting depth
determine this. A deeper rooting depth
means there is a larger volume of water
stored in the soil and therefore a larger
reservoir of water for the crop to draw upon
between irrigations.
HOW TO DETERMINE THE SOIL WATER
STORAGE AND THE MAXIMUM SOIL WATER
DEFICIET
Step 1 Determine the crop rooting depth, RD (m),
Step 2 Determine the available water storage capacity of the
soil, AWSC (mm/m)
Step 3 Calculate the total soil water storage, SWS (mm)
SWS (mm) = RD (m) x AWSC (mm/m)
 Step 4 Determine the availability coefficient of the water to

the crop, AC (%)
 Step 5 Calculate the maximum soil water Deficit, MSWD
(mm)
MSWD = SWS (mm) x AC (%)
Example:
For a mature corn crop in a loamy sand soil.
Rooting depth = 0.90 m
Soil Water Storage Capacity = 100 mm/m
Availability coefficient = 50%
SWS = 0.90 m x 100 mm/m = 90 mm (Equation 1)
MAD = 90 mm x 50% = 45 mm (Equation 2)
For the same crop in the early summer the rooting depth
may be only 0.3 m, therefore:
SWS = 0.30 m x 100 mm/m = 30 mm (Equation 1)
MAD = 30 mm x 50% = 15 mm (Equation 2)
When irrigating the mature crop more water is needed
to fill the root zone.
When the crop is immature the irrigation amount
required will be less.
SOIL WATER TERMINOLOGY
 Available soil moisture
Is the difference between the amount of water in the
soil at field capacity and the amount at the
permanent wilting point.
 Saturation
Occurs when all the voids in the soil are completely
filled with water. Although there is plenty of water
available to the crop at saturation, water uptake is
seriously curtailed by the lack of oxygen in the soil at
soil water contents greater than field capacity.
 Soil texture
Refers to the relative percentage of sand, silt and clay
sized particles in the soil material.
 Soil structure
Structure is the arrangement of soil particles and soil
aggregates into recognizable particles or lumps.
Aggregates occur in almost all soils, but their
strength, size and shape varies between soil typed.
 Deep percolation
Water that drains beyond the plant root zone.
 Field capacity
The water content of the soil where all free water has
been drained form the soil through gravity. Sandy
soils may drain within a few hours but fine textured
soils such as clay may take a few days to drain.
Proper irrigation brings soil moisture up to filed
capacity.
 Permanent wilting point (PWP)
The soil moisture content at which the plant will wilt
and die. While there still may be water in the soil, the
plant is not able to extract sufficient water from the
soil to meet it’s needs.
 Maximum soil water deficit (MSWD)
Only a portion of the available water is easily used by
the crop. The maximum soil water deficit is the
amount of water stored in the plant’s root zone that is
readily available to the plant. To prevent plant water
stress an allowable depletion factor is used to calculate
the manageable allowable depletion. This factor varies
but is usually around 50%.
Saturation
Field capacity
Maximum
Soil Water
Deficit Tota
Available
volu
Soil
of w
Moisture
in th
soil
Permanent wilting point
Completely dry
Figure Soil Water Moisture Terms
5.3.Annual irrigation schedule
The determination of when and how much
to apply requires a knowledge of the
available water capacity (AWC) of the soil,
the management allowed depletion (MAD)
or plant stress level for the specified crop,
the crop peak consumptive use, crop
rooting depth, and the critical periods in
the growing season when the crop should
not be stressed.
Most crops should be irrigated before more
than half of the available moisture in the
crop root zone has been used. Some crops,
however, are thought to do better at higher
moisture levels (less moisture deficiency at
time of irrigation), Crops. Generally,
however, the need for irrigation is doubtful
until the moisture deficit approaches one-
third of the AWC of the crop root zone.
Irrigation must begin in time so that the entire
irrigated area can be covered before the available
moisture level in the last portion of the field to be
irrigated reaches a point to cause unfavorable
moisture stress of the crop. This aspect of
management is crucial for systems that may need
several days to irrigate the entire field area.
Examples of such systems may be traveling gun
systems, hand move lateral systems, and traveling
lateral systems. One of the most effective ways of
determining when and how much water to apply is
to measure or estimate the soil water content.
 Measurements should be made in that part
of the soil from which plant roots extract
their moisture and according to the
moisture-extraction pattern of the
particular crop. There are other methods
being developed to determine when to
irrigate, but measuring soil moisture is the
most effective method in use now.
 Measurements should be taken weekly in
spring and fall and more frequently during
the hot weather and critical growth periods
of the crop.
The irrigator may be able to reduce the
frequency of readings after he or she has
become familiar with the pattern of moisture
depletion. To accurately predict moisture
levels, measurements should be taken and
recorded regularly, regardless of the time of
year or the stage of crop growth. Comparison
of yearly records with crop yields helps the
irrigator to improve his or her management
of the irrigation system.
Irrigation scheduling utilizes two important principles:
 When an adequate supply of available moisture is
present in the effective root zone, the rate of
consumptive use by a given crop depends primarily on.
the stage of growth and climatological conditions.
 When the moisture content of the effective root zone is
known at any given time, the moisture content at any
later time can be computed by crediting moisture
gained from effective rainfall or irrigation and
subtracting the daily moisture withdrawals during the
elapsed time.
To apply the above principles, the following requirements are
essential:
 Soil with good internal and surface drainage.
 An adequate irrigation system and water supply.
 Daily consumptive use values for the crop.
 Accurate total available moisture values.
 Determination of the effective root zone of the crop.
 Measurements of effective rainfall and irrigation applications
at the site.
 Available soil moisture maintained above the lower limit of
withdrawal (25 to 30 percent of the total available moisture.)
It is desirable to make periodic soil moisture checks to
determine actual available moisture.
Water budgeting
Water budgeting is estimating
1. how much crop can be grown with the available water
(particularly relevant for annual crops), or
2. how much water is needed to achieve the required
quantity and quality.
Water budgeting allows you to plan your irrigation
management and make the changes you needed
during the season.
The factors that help determine the water budget are
 the local climate
 the annual requirements of the crop
 the available supply
Water budgeting
Local climate
 What is the average rainfall?
 What is the probability of above or below average
rainfall?
 When does rainfall occur – how will this affect
irrigation and dam supplies?
Annual requirements of the crop
 Do you know the annual requirements for your crop
 What scope is there to adjust water within acceptable
quality and quantity
 boundaries
Water budgeting
Available supply
 How much stored water is available?
 How much water will be lost from the storage by
evaporation?
 How much water can be pumped from streams or bores?
 Can water be transferred or purchased? How much will
this cost versus the
 benefits?
 Is water quality an issue at low flows?
 What are the chances of summer “freshes”?
Calculating the water budget
At the beginning of each season you need to estimate
what area of crop you can irrigate if you account for all
of the factors. Divide the total amount of water
available by the amount of irrigation water you expect
your crop to use for the season.
In water budgeting, you need to consider the overall
efficiency of your system and, allowing for this, you
can estimate the maximum area of crop you can
irrigate.
Example 1:
You are growing pasture under spray

irrigation and you have 60 ML available.Your
system is about 80% (0.8) efficient; ie., about
80% of the water that you pump reaches the
rootzone of the pasture.Pasture requires
about 5 ML/ha of irrigation water in a season
of average rainfall in most areas of Tasmania.
Assuming the water is available from a
stream or bore or district Scheme, the
maximum area that can be watered is:= (60 *
0.8)/5 = 9.6 ha
Irrigation Scheduling Methods
the following methods are used to schedule when and
how much water to apply. These include: soil and crop
monitoring methods; the checkbook method; and
computer assisted methods. Growers are
recommended to use either of these methods depending
on their management preference.
Soil moisture content should be monitored to determine
if an irrigation is needed based on predetermined
critical levels for certain crops. The crop stress index
method measures plant condition and compares that
status to a well known reference for a well watered plant
condition. Soil moisture monitoring before, during, and
after the crop growing season is perhaps the most
accurate irrigation scheduling tool.
Monitoring actual soil moisture is like receiving your
bank statement from the bank, it affirms or cautions
you when an error may exist or other adjustments may
be needed. It is used together with the Checkbook
Method of irrigation scheduling. This method has
proven very useful for scheduling irrigations by
providing a running account of available moisture in
the effective root zone. Similar to bank account records
of deposits (irrigation and rainfall) and withdrawals
(evapotrans-piration), the account balance provides
the irrigator with information as to when to irrigate
and how much water to apply.
 The method requires a daily recording of rainfall,

estimated consumptive use, net irrigation
amounts, and moisture balance throughout the
growing season of the irrigated crop.
 With internet access, growers can enroll in
Weather Station Network which offers
computerized irrigation scheduling using real
time climate data to compute daily crop
evapotranspiration. Using this service, the
computer facilitates irrigation water management
data as well as record keeping on the farm.
(computer assisted checkbook method).
5.4.Deep percolation from irrigation
 Increased groundwater recharge
 waterlogging
 soil salinity
increased groundwater recharge stems from the
unavoidable deep percolation losses occurring in the
irrigation scheme. The lower the irrigation efficiency,
the higher the losses. Although fairly high irrigation
efficiencies of 70% or more (i.e. losses of 30% or less)
can occur with sophisticated techniques like sprinkler
irrigation and drip irrigation, or by well
managed surface irrigation, in practice the losses are
commonly in the order of 40% to 60%. This may cause
the following issues:
 rising water tables
 increased storage of groundwater that may be used
for irrigation, municipal, household and drinking
water by pumping from wells
 waterlogging and drainage problems in villages,
agricultural lands, and along roads - with mostly
negative consequences. The increased level of the
water table can lead to reduced agricultural
production.
 shallow water tables - a sign that the aquifer is
unable to cope with the groundwater recharge
stemming from the deep percolation losses
 where water tables are shallow, the irrigation
applications are reduced. As a result, the soil is
no longer leached and soil salinity problems
develop
 stagnant water tables at the soil surface are
known to increase the incidence of water-
borne diseases like malaria, filariasis, yellow
fever, dengue, and schistosomiasis (Bilharzia)
in many areas. Health costs, appraisals of
health impacts and mitigation measures are
rarely part of irrigation projects, if at all.
 to mitigate the adverse effects of shallow water
tables and soil salinization, some form
of watertable control, soil salinity
control, drainage and drainage system is needed
 as drainage water moves through the soil profile it
may dissolve nutrients (either fertilizer-based or
naturally occurring) such as nitrates, leading to a
buildup of those nutrients in the ground-water
aquifer. High nitrate levels in drinking water can
be harmful to humans, particularly infants under 6
months, where it is linked to "blue-baby
syndrome"
5.5.SOURCES CAUSING HIGH WATER
TABLE CONDITIONS
5.6.Sources causing high water table
conditions
Introduction:
High water table and water logging of the land pose a
serious problem in humid areas . Mostly, excess and
high intensity rainfall and absence of proper drainage
have been the primary causes of water logging and
development of high water table in crop lands.
The sustainability of crop production and soil health
are under great threat in irrigated area owing to
improper irrigation practices, particular over
irrigation. Lack of proper drainage system has made
the situation worse.
Causes of water logging and development of high
water table
Water logging is caused in location where the inflow of
water into it exceeds the outflow resulting in
progressive rise of water table. The inflow may be due
to excessive and high intensity rainfall, seepage from
canals, reservoirs, flood and over-irrigation. The
outflow declines with impaired drainage, lack of
adequate drainage, rise of water table owing to
construction of reservoirs, rise in water level in rivers.
The causes are:
1.Heavy rainfall with high intensity affecting quick
disposal of water through natural and/or artificial
drainage systems.
Causes of water logging and development of high water
table (cont…)
2.Heavy infiltration of rainwater owing to its standing on
the land surface for a long time recharging the
groundwater and raising the water table
3.Accumulation of rainwater in low-lying flat land
surrounded by high lands affecting natural drainage.
4.Presence of hard pan and impervious soil layer causing
poor percolation of water and accumulation of water on
the soil surface.
5.Shallow soils and presence of bedrock at shallow depth
preventing deep percolation of water and causing its
accumulation on the land surface.
6.Low infiltration rate in heavy soils causing accumulation
of water on the surface.
table (cont…)
7.Absence of adequate natural drainage or, obstruction of
natural drainage by construction of irrigation channel,
rail, road or embankment.
8.Obliteration of the natural drainage by occupying part of
the drain area for growing crop.
9.Unauthorized occupation of natural drain area for other
purposes.
10.Inadequate carrying capacity or absence of artificial
drainage system.
11.Natural obstruction to outflow of ground water leadsing
to perched or false high water table.
12.Over-irrigation helping to raise the water table.
table (cont…)
13.Seepage from high –rise canals that are particularly
unlined.
14.Seepage from water reservoir.
15.Development of weed growth and silt deposition in
drain bed lowering the drain capacity.
16.Rise of water table due to excess rainfall and poor
hydraulic slope for fast movement of excess water to the
natural drainage.
17.Artesian aquifer may lead to excess water at some
specific locations due to upward flow of water from
aquifer or rise of water table.
18.Over-flow of water from canals and drainage ditches
during period of excess rainfall.
19.Flood water which is, of course, seasonal and occurs in
5.6.DETERMINATION OF BARRIER ZONE AND
DRAIN LOCATIONS
Barrier zone
The barrier is a stratum or layer that restricts
the movement of water. Geology is often a key
in determining the barrier-also known as the
barrier stratum, barrier layer, or barrier zone.
These terms are often used in drainage
engineering and are related to the relative
hydraulic characteristics of various
strata.Since strata in irrigated areas are found
in a generally horizontal attitude relative to
the ground surface, the barrier zone is usually
considered as a barrier to the vertical
movement of water.
Barrier zone
This is not exclusively the condition, however,
because in areas of unconformity or folding of
geologic strata, a vertical barrier may also restrict
the horizontal movement of water.
When water percolating downward under the force
of gravity reaches the top of a barrier zone, a
saturated condition develops, resulting in
differential pressures. Most of the water moves
laterally above the barrier zone. Therefore, in
ground-water hydraulics, the barrier zone limits the
depth of material available for the movement of
ground water.
Barrier zone
This depth-of-flow zone, together with the
material’s hydraulic conductivity, greatly
influences drainage requirements for a given
area. A typical drainage investigation
requires a great deal of effort to identify the
barrier zone and its depth below the ground
surface. This depth-to-barrier dam is used to
determine the depth-of-flow zone available
to a drainage system.
Drain Location
There are no fixed rules or methods to direct the
drainage engineer in locating every drain. Each
location presents an individual problem which can
be solved by analyzing the conditions involved.
Wherever possible, outlet, suboutlet, and collector
drains should be located in natural drainageways.
Relief and interceptor drams should be located
where they will produce the best drainage results.
The location and spacing of drains require careful
study and intuitive judgment on the part of the
drainage engineer.
Drain Location
As tentative dram locations are decided upon, they
should be located on a map of the area. The
centerlines of the drains should then be staked out
on the site.,Fmquently, unmapped buildings, etc.,
at the construction site will make c&ges necessary
in location or alignment of drains. In these
instances, drain locations on the site should be
changed as required and the tentative map
locations revised to show the new alignments.
Dram centerlines on the map should be scaled and
stations marked for future reference
Drain Location
After the centerline has been staked on the ground,
holes should be drilled along the centerline at
various intervals down to the proposed drain
depth to confinm that the drain is properly
located in permeable material. Holes offset from
the centerline should also be drilled for this
purpose. Data collected from centerline drilling
should be logged to provide information on
construction conditions in addition to drainage
parameters. This information should be provided
to potential bidders as a part of the contract
specifications.
Drain Location
Those holes can also be used to confirm the
gravel envelope design for the soils at actual
drain depth. Stationing should start at the
mouth of the outlet drain and proceed
upstream. In some instances, first-order
surveys may be required to establish
centerlines, but quite often, in an open
location, the line may be staked out visually
with the use of range poles. In considering
ditch locations, allowance should be made
for sufficient right-of-way, usually 30 meters
(100 feet).
END
I WISH YOU A LOT OF SUCCESS
THANKS

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 Course Module: Introduction to drainage

 Department of Irrigation and Drainage Technology

 CHAPTER 2: DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS

 CHAPTER 4: DRAINAGE REQUIREMENTS

 CHAPTER 5: DRAINAGE SYSTEM

 Drainage is the only way to reclaim the land which

3. To maintain groundwater levels at a desired level

(2) Surface drainage is the removal of excess water from the

- The water table is the upper boundary of the ground water;

 Surface Drainage: Surface drainage is the removal of

Subsurface Drainage is the removal or control of ground

 Deferred Drainage.-Deferred drainage is that which is

These are the constructed drains, generally alined along the

1) Open drains or surface drains

2) Closed drains or subsurface drains

2) A main drainage system, which conveys the water away

3) An outlet, which is the point where the drainage water is

At several points, in the design procedure, it may be

An example of empirical criteria is the drainage coefficient

 Successful drainage of a wet area depends on a correct

Flat and nearly flat areas of land are subject to ponded

Types of drainage problems (cont’d)

Drainage in humid areas Drainage in arid areas

1. Evaporation, which takes heat from the soil, lowers

Also, wet soil requires more heat to warm up than does

2. Saturation or surface ponding stops air circulation in

3. Certain plant diseases and parasites are encouraged.

5. Soil structure is adversely affected.

6. Salts and alkali if present in the soil or ground water tend to

7. Wet spots in the field delay farm operations or prevent

(a) the maximum duration and frequency of surface

It is a system of drainage measures, such as open drains

• Surface drainage techniques such as land leveling,

(1)Collection system: Bedding, field ditches, row ditches, or

(2)Disposal system: This is the part of the system that

 The water from field plots flows toward drain or shallow

 Then shallow ditches discharge into larger and relatively

 The collector drain is connected to the lake or other

A surface drainage system has always two components:

 Shaping of the surface by land forming to enhance the

 Construction of open field drains to divert this water

The beds are separated by parallel shallow, open field drains

 Bedding is accomplished by ploughing land to

The bedding system is normally used for grassland.

In modern farming, bedding is not considered an

 Land grading is the process of forming the land surface

 Land grading for surface drainage consists of forming

 It is a one-time operation, involving the transport of

 Land grading for surface drainage differs from land

Land planning is the process of smoothing the land surface

It is frequently applied in conjunction with land grading,

 This is normally accomplished by deep open drain or

 Subsurface drainage increases the productivity of poorly

This type of drainage channel is deeper than the natural

Deep open drain Buried (subsurface) pipe drain

Deep open drain

(b) that the velocity along these streamlines is proportional to

 This information often can be obtained from a

 More detailed examinations and surveys are made

The investigator should walk over the area and become

The ideal time to do this is immediately after an intensive

Some field surveys may be needed:

 to identify or locate low areas.