Hydrographic Surveys

130390106054 - Darshan Shah

130390106053 - Bhavik Shah
130390106050 - Nakul Raval
Soundings
• Sounding
– Measurement of the vertical depth from the
level surface of the water to the bed of the lake,
river or sea
– a series of soundings whether taken at random
points or on a grid can be used to prepare a
plan showing the topographic features of the
land covered by the water
Soundings
• Sounding (cont)
– simplest case
• sounding survey of a lake with no tidal or wave
pattern
• water would be assumed to be level and accepted
as datum for the soundings i.e. RL = 0.00m
• soundings would be taken in a systematic way and
the fix positions are plotted
• depth of the soundings are plotted so that the
decimal point represents the the position of the
sounding on the chart e.g.
– 6.5 would indicate a depth of 6.5m at that point on the
chart
– 6.5 indicates 6.5m above datum
Soundings - Sounding Datums
– In coastal areas soundings are normally related to a tidal datum such as Mean Sea Level
– Hydrographic charts must always have a lowest water as their datum
• mariners reading a depth of 10.0 m expect a boat drawing 9.0m to be safe during all tide ranges
Soundings
• Sounding Datums (cont)
– Each sounding made on tidal water must be
corrected for the height of the tide at the time
the sounding was taken
• a tide board is attached to a suitable structure and
set vertically in the water in the vicinity of the
survey area
– preferable to be visible from the boat
• tide board readings and the time are observed and
recorded at constant intervals e.g.15min
Soundings
• Sounding Datums (cont)
• the zero mark on the tide board is determined by
levelling from a BM
• differences between AHD and Mean Sea Level are
available and the soundings can be corrected
accordingly
Soundings - Sounding Datums (cont)
• conventional levelling found that
– the 3.000 graduation on the gauge is exactly 19 metres below the BM.
– Therefore the zero mark on the tide board has an RL of -2.375m.
– Conversely the datum (AHD) zero is at 2.375m on the tide board.
 Soundings - Sounding Datums (cont)
– During a sounding survey the tide board was observed every 15 minutes. The results of
soundings taken during one 15 minute period are shown below. Reduce the soundings to AHD
Tides
• Caused by the combined gravitational effects of the sun and moon, with the moon having the major effect
– influenced by
• terrestrial gravity
• earth’s rotation
• land masses
• weather systems
Tides - Semi-Diurnal Tide
• Consider the earth to be stationary and covered with a layer of water. Assume
that the position of the moon is fixed such that it has zero declination
Tides - Semi-Diurnal Tide
• On the side of the earth nearest the moon there is a net force towards the moon
• whilst on the opposite side there is a net force away from the moon.
• The small net forces at the North and South poles will be towards the centre of the earth.
Tides - Semi-Diurnal Tide
• At the two points on the equator, nearest and farthest from the moon there will be permanent high water.
• At right angles to these points a band of low water will lie along the meridian on either side of the earth
Tides - Semi-Diurnal Tide
• When the moon moves into perigee (closest point to the earth during the moon’s elliptical orbit) the high waters will be higher and the low waters will be lower.
• The opposite effect occurs when the moon moves out to apogee (most distant point)
• These minimum and maximum tides are known as perigean and apogean respectively
Tides - Semi-Diurnal Tide
• When the earth rotates the four tides, two high and two low, move around the earth, in a 24 hour period.
• This is known as a semi-diurnal tide

• the poles have a permanent low tide

Tides - Diurnal Tide
• The moon's declination causes inequalities in the tides that occur.
• successive high tides at a point on the earth with a latitude equal to X (and Y) will NOT be equal.
– The high tide at X will not be as high as that at Y
Tides - Diurnal Tide
• At all points on the earth where the latitude on earth is greater than the moon’s co-declination, there is only one high tide and one low tide per day.
• This is known as the diurnal tide
• The form of tide varies between the extremes of diurnal and semi-diurnal, with those exhibiting both characteristics being known as 'mixed'

Moon’s co-declination
Tides - Spring Tide
• The sun has a similar tide producing effect on the earth to that of the moon. However the forces involved are not as great.
• At new and full moon the sun, moon and earth are nearly in a straight line. The tide raising forces act together to produce
tides with a large range. These tides occur fortnightly and are called spring tides
Tides - Neap Tide
• At the moon's first and last quarter the moon's tide raising force is to some extent counteracted by the sun's tide raising
force producing tides with a small range.
• These tides are called neap tides (neap being high water at its lowest value).
Soundings
• Tide Levels
– Mean Sea Level ( MSL )
• average height of the sea in all states of the
oscillation
• equivalent to the level which would exist in the
absence of all tidal forces
• approximates the geoid
Soundings
• Tide Levels (cont)

– Mean Tide Level ( MTL )

• average value of the heights of high and low water

– Mean High Water Springs ( MHWS ) and Mean

Low Water Springs ( MLWS )
• average values derived from a sufficiently long
series of high water springs and low water springs
Soundings
• Tide Levels (cont)

– Mean High Water Neaps ( MHWN ) and Mean

Low Water Neaps ( MLWN )
• average values derived from a sufficiently long
series of high water neaps and low water neaps
Soundings
• Tide Levels (cont)

– Highest Astronomical Tide ( HAT ) and Lowest

Astronomical Tide ( LAT )
• highest and lowest levels that can be predicted to
occur under average meteorlogical conditions
• may not be reached each year
• do not take storm surges into account and hence
considerably higher and lower levels may still
occur
Soundings
• Tide Levels (cont)

– Indian Spring Low Water ( ISLW )

• level suggested by Sir Charles Darwin for Indian
waters
• mathematically derived from tide data
Tide Gauges - Tide Board
• merely a vertical staff with a broader face than a levelling
staff. This may be graduated every 5 or 10 centimetres,
according to the accuracy required. The tide board is
often difficult to read due to the surface chop or wave
action
Tide Gauges - Float Gauge
• A float is attached to the bottom of a staff.
• The staff is then held in a box which is fixed in a vertical
position.
• Only the bottom of the box is open to the sea.

• The float rises and falls with the

tide, the staff running up and
down through guides on the
inside of the box.
• The staff can be read through a
special inspection opening in
the side of the box.
Tide Gauges - Automatic Tide Gauge
• normally established permanently at an official tide
station.
• The tidal fluctuations are recorded on a chart attached to
a drum which revolves with time

• The gauge may need to be

visited only once every seven
days to change the paper chart
and reset the drive mechanism,
i.e. wind the clock
Tide Gauges - Water Pressure Tide Gauge
• Operates on the changes of water pressure due to tide rising and
falling
• completely self contained instrument designed to measure and record
tidal movements when mounted on an underwater offshore structure
or on the sea bed

• Due account must be made for

barometric pressure reading
and the necessary corrections
applied
Establishing Tide Levels
• If tide observations are made over a period of time,
statistical values for various types of tide can be arrived
at, such as mean sea level (MSL), MHWS, MLWN, etc.
• The degree of variation that can occur at a point for
observations taken over different time periods will of
course depend upon the range of the tide at that point.
Establishing Tide Levels
• As a guide, the following figures are appropriate:

– Figures based on one full day's observation may vary

considerably from observations made on another day as
meteorological conditions play a big part.
– Figures based on one full lunar month's observations (291/2 days)
may vary by up to 25cm from values taken from another month's
observations on the East coast of Queensland. This figure is the
semi-annual and annual variation of MSL.
– Figures based on one full year's observations may vary from
values taken from another year's observations.
Establishing Tide Levels
• Thus it can be seen that to obtain the figure for tidal
variation at a point observations should be taken over at
least one lunar month.
• More accurate results are obtained when observations
are taken over a full year.
• The most accurate results cannot be obtained until
continuous observations have been made over at least 19
years.
Establishing Tide Levels
• Ships are concerned with the least amount of water that
may be below them.
• the datum for depths at sea, and navigation charts is
normally a low water datum.
• Two datums which have been used in the past for
navigation charts are
– LWST and ISLW,
– both of which are to be progressively replaced by LAT.
Soundings
• Sounding Equipment
– Sounding Rod
• 5m long, plate or shoe on end to prevent sinkage
into soft bottom
• commonly used in creeks, rivers, shallow dams or
lakes

– Lead Line
• lead weight attached to the line’s end to take it to
the bottom
Soundings
• Sounding Equipment (cont)
– Sonar Equipment
• Sound Navigation Ranging
• measure the range of an object by timing the two
way journey of pulse of sound energy and
converting the result to units of distance
Soundings - Echo Sounder

– sounding device utilising a

fixed beam with a vertical
axis

– shape and width of the beam

varies
Soundings - Echo Sounder
– several components
• Recorder
1 6
– paper record or trace
7 – digital display
– punch tape
– cassette recorder
2
5 – digital readout to a
computer

3
4
Soundings - Echo Sounder

• Recorder
– paper record or trace
– digital display
– punch tape
– cassette recorder
– digital readout to a
computer
Soundings - Echo Sounder

• Recorder
– when a horizontal fix occurs a fix
button is pressed and the moment is
recorded on the trace
» fix is numbered so that it can be
correlated with position fixes
made
» time is recorded at the first and
last fix and for every tenth fix -
enables the tide gauge readings
to be correlated with the depth
readings
Soundings - Echo Sounder

• Transducer
– transmitting transducer vibrations generates pressure
waves which are projected into the water medium and
detected by a receiving transducer
– may be
» hull mounted
» mounted in a shoe, or
» towed in a ‘fish’ enabling the sounder to operate at
any depth
• Receiving Amplifier
– amplifies the weak return signal
Soundings - Echo Sounder
– The shape of the beam is
assumed to be a cone
– the frequency of the sound signal
determines the beam width and
the reflective and penetrative
capabilities of the pulse
– the wider the beam width the
wider the lane widths and a
lesser number of runs are
required
Soundings - Echo Sounder
– the width of the beam varies with
the water depth
• possible to miss a prominent high
point if the line spacing does not
allow for any overlap
– If a wide beam is used on a
sloping seabed then an incorrect
depth which (will be that of the
first returning signal) will be
recorded for the depth
immediately under the boat
Soundings - Echo Sounder
– Thus for precise work it is essential that a
narrow beam is used.
• disadvantage is an increase in the number of lines
necessary to cover the same area in order to achieve
a saturated examination.
Soundings - Echo Sounder
– A dual frequency echo sounder using a narrow
beam width frequency together with a wide
beam width frequency are used at the same
time to overcome this problem.
Soundings - Echo Sounder
– dual frequency echo sounder enables
• an accurate depth to be obtained below the vessel
• check on the presence of any high points to the
side of the vessel.
– lane widths can be widened compared with
those for a single narrow beam
Soundings - Echo Sounder

– Calibration
• velocity of the pulse varies with the temperature
and salinity of the water
• time taken for the outward and return pulse will
vary and the depth indicated will vary
Soundings - Echo Sounder

– Calibration
• three methods of calibration
– Calculation
» use the temperature and salinity of the water to
calculate the velocity of sound within the water

– Direct Calibration
» when the bottom is smooth and level, the recorder
may be calibrated by by comparison with direct
sounding by lead line
Soundings - Echo Sounder

– Calibration
• third method of calibration
– Bar Check
» a metal bar is lowered under the transducers to
known depths below the water
» the echo sounder is adjusted until the correct depth
is measured
» checks are made at other depths
Soundings - Echo Sounder

– Calibration
• Squat
– when a vessel moves through
the water at different speeds it
settles differently in the water
– the amount of squat will depend
on
» the speed
» the loading
» hull shape
Soundings - Reduction of Echo
Sounder Traces
– Calibration
• Squat
– determined by
» sailing over an area of known depth at different
speeds - the different depth readings record the
differences due to squat
» a staff is set up at the bow and the stern of the vessel
- the vessel is sailed past at different speeds and a
level used to read the staves - the squat is
determined from the differing levels
Soundings - Reduction of Echo
Sounder Traces
• The soundings at each fix are not
reduced separately.
Soundings - Reduction of Echo
Sounder Traces
• Note the three level lines drawn on
the diagram

• Level Datum - tidal datum

Water line

Transmission Line • Water line is the water surface

Level Datum level at any moment in time i.e.
changes as the tide changes -
can be above or below the datum
line
• Transmission Line (TZ)
transducer position above or
below the water line
 Soundings - Reduction of Echo
Sounder Traces

Squat

Transmission Line
MLWS

Difference
obtained from
tide board
readings
Soundings - Reduction of Echo
Sounder Traces Water line
Transmission Line

MLWS