Power Plant Technology

Fuel and Combustion

(Lecture 2)

by
Mohamad Firdaus Basrawi, Dr. (Eng)
Mechanical Engineering Faculty
mfirdausb@ump.edu.my
COMBUSTION REACTION

Combustion: heat release with high temperature oxidation of fuel.

Combustible elements in fuel: C, H and S.
Basic chemical equation for complete combustion:

C + O2 � CO2
2 H 2 + O2 � 2 H 2O
S + O2 � SO2

The formation of CO happened when oxygen is insufficient and C will be burned

incompletely.

2C + O2  2CO
Four basic conditions (MATT) for complete combustion:

• Mixture: To have enough turbulence for through mixing of fuel+air.

• Air: Adequate supply of air for complete combustion.
• Temperature: Sufficient temperature inside chamber to ignite the incoming fuel air mixture.
• Time: Provide sufficient time for complete combustion.

Stoichiometric air (O2 based)

The ultimate analysis of the fuel ,

C + H + O + N + S + M + A = 1.0
O2 needed for the oxidation can be calculated as follows:
C + O2 = CO2

12 kg 32kg 44 kg

1 kg 2.67 kg 3.67 kg

C kg 2.67 C kg 3.67 C kg
 2 H2 + O2 = 2H2O
4 kg 32 kg 36 kg

1 kg 8 kg 9 kg

H kg 8 H kg 9 H kg

S + O2 = SO2

32 kg 32 kg 64 kg

1 kg 1 kg 2 kg

S kg S kg 2 S kg

O2 needed for complete combustion of 1 kg fuel is:

WO2 = 2.67 C + 8 H + S - O
O: oxygen in the fuel
Air contents 23.2% oxygen by mass. Thus, theoretically air
(stoichiometric & air) needed for complete combustion of 1 kg fuel is

WO2 2.67 8 1 1
WT = = C+ H+ S- O
0.232 0.232 0.232 0.232 0.232
WT = 11.5C + 34.5H + 4.31S - 4.31O

However, ｔ heoretical or stoichiometric air is insufficient for complete combustion

EXCESS AIR (stoichiometric & air & excess air) is needed for complete combustion.
The percentage of excess air supplied is:

WA - WT
%e xcess air = �100
WT

WA : actual amount of air supplied.

 The dilution coefficient d, is given by
WA
d=
WT

In the combustion of the methane

CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2H2O

Considering N2 in chemical equation (Stoichiometric & air & N2)

Atmospheric air contains
Oxygen: 21%v , nitrogen: 78%v, argon: 1%v.
*In combustion calculations, the argon is neglected

Thus, nitrogen: 79%v.

Since 21O2 -> 79N2, 1O2 -> 3.76N2
Thus, if 2O2 -> 2(3.76)N2

The combustion of methane, the reaction can be written as:

CH4 + 2 O2 + 2 (3.76)N2 CO2 + 2 H2O + 7.52N2
The combustion of methane, the reaction can be written as:
CH4 + 2 O2 + 2 (3.76)N2 CO2 + 2 H2O + 7.52N2

With 150% theoretical air (50% excess) air,

CH4 + 2(1.5) O2 + 2(3.76) (1.5) N2 CO2 + 2H2O + O2 + 11.28N2

With less than needed excess air, e.g. with 115% theoretical air (15 % excess air),

CH4 + 2 (1.15) O2 +2 (1.15) (3.76) N2

0.95 CO2 + 0.05CO +2H2O+0.325O2+8.65N2
There may be a small amount of CO present in the products, depending on mixing and
turbulence during combustion,
 Example 1

The analysis of a fuel oil is given to be; Carbon 78 %, hydrogen 6%, oxygen 9% and Ash
7% with 50% excess air is supplied to the boiler. If the flue gas temperature is 320oC, and
surrounding temperature of boiler house is 20oC,
determine the energy that is carried by DFG per kg of fuel. Assume Cp for dry flue gas to
be 1.006 kJ/kg K.
 Example 2

The analysis of a fuel oil is given to be; Carbon 84 %, hydrogen 10%, oxygen 1.6% and
Sulfur 3.2%. Determine:

1)The air that is required to burn 1 kg fuel

2)Product of combustion and its percentage
ACTUAL AIR-FUEL RATIO
The flue gas analysis is measured is on dry basis which is:
CO2 + CO + O2 + N2 = 100% By Volume

Assume that the DFG analysis of a gas sampling is: 12% CO2, 3% CO, 5% O2 and 80% N2 by
volume.
Therefore 1 mole of DFG contains 0.12 mole CO2, 0.03 mole CO, 0.05 mole O2 and 0.8
mole N2.

The Mass of the DFG then becomes equal to :

44 (0.12) + 28 (0.03) + 32 (0.05) + 28 (0.8) = 30.12 kg/kg mole fuel.

In general the Mass of dry flue gas (dfg) is given by:

Mdfg = 44CO2 + 28CO + 32O2 + 28N2
Therefore, the percentage of each combustion product is given by

44CO2
%CO2 by mass = �100
44CO2 + 28CO + 32O2 + 28N2
32O2
O2 by mass = �100
44CO2 + 28CO + 32O2 + 28N2
28N2
%N2 by mass = �100
44CO2 + 28CO + 32O2 + 28N2
28CO
%CO by mass = �100
44CO2 + 28CO + 32O2 + 28N2

Mass of Carbon per kg DFG is determined as below:

For 44 kg of CO2 gas, it has 12 kg
C + O2 → CO2 Carbon
12 kg 32 kg 44 kg

2C + O2 → 2CO
24 kg 32 kg 56 kg OR For 28 kg of CO gas, it has 12 kg
Carbon
12 kg 16 kg 28 kg
 12 ( CO2 + CO )
Mass of Carbon per kg DFG =
44CO2 + 28CO + 32O2 + 28 N 2

Let Cab be the mass fraction of carbon C in the fuel which has beed oxidized either to
CO2 o CO. Then (C-Cab) is the mass fraction of unburnt carbon in the refurse. For 1kg
fuel burnt, there should be Cab kg of carbon in the dfg.
Therefore,
Mass of dfg produced per kg fuel.
Cab ( 44CO2 + 28CO + 32O2 + 28N2 )
= .
12 ( CO2 + CO)
From Eqs (4.31) and (4.33)
Mass of N2 in dfg per kg fuel

Cab ( 44CO2 + 28CO + 32O2 + 28N2 ) 28N2

= �
12 ( CO2 + CO ) 44CO2 + 28CO + 32O2 + 28N2
28N2Cab
=
12 ( CO2 + CO )
The nitrogen in dfg comes from fuel as well as air. So, nitrogen coming with arir per kg
fuel.
28N2Cab
= - N.
12 ( CO2 + CO )

Where N is the mass fraction of nitrogen in fuel. The actual amount of air supplied
per kg fuel is

28N2Cab 1 1
WA = � - N.
12 ( CO2 + CO ) 0.768 0.768

Since N in fuel is small,

3.04N2Cab
WA = .
CO2 + CO
This is the actual air-fuel-ratio used for combustion of the fuel, where Cab is the
fraction of carbon in fuel which has been burnt to CO2 and CO. If W A is measured by
an air flow meter, the degree of burnout of carbon, Cab can be estimated from the
relation
WA ( CO2 + CO)
Cab = .
3.04N2
Combustion Equation (With Excess air)
Consider a coal have the results of ultimate analysis as below:

C-60%, H-4%, S-3.2%, O-4.8%, N-2%, M-5%, and A-21%.

Exhaust gas has the volumetric analysis as below:

CO2 + SO2=12%, CO=2%, O2=4% and N2=82%

Let a mole of O2 is supplied to the 100kg of coal.

Write the combustion equation.
Consider moles of oxygen be supplied for 100kg fuel. Then, the combustion
equation can be expressed as
60 4 3.2 4.8
C + H 2+ S+ O +
a
O
2+
3
2.
7
6
a
N�
2b
C
O
2+
+
d
C
O
e+
S
O
f
O
2+
g
2+
N
h
2H
O
2
12 2 32 32

By the equating the coefficients

6
0 d h4
.8
C
a
rb
on
:b+
d== 5 O
x
y
ge
n:
b+++
e+
f =+a
1
2 2 23
2

Hydrogen : h = 2 Nitrogen : g = 3.76a

3.
2
e = =
Sulphur
: 0
.
1
32
From the dry flue gas (dfg) analysis f
=0
.
04
+
be +
bd+
e+f+
g
=
0.
12
+
bd+++
ef g
d g
=0
.
02 =
0.
82
+
bd+
e+f+
g +
bd+++
ef g
 Combustion Equation (With less air)

Let us now consider the combustion of propane gas (C 3H8) with 80% theoretical air

C3H8 + 5 O2 + 5 (3.76) N2 3CO2 +4 H2O + 18.8 N2

With 80% theoretical air, the combustion equation becomes:

C3H8 + 5 (0.8) O2 + 5 (3.76)(0.8) N2 a CO+bCO2 +4 H2O + 15.04 N2

Carbon balance: 3 = a + b
N2 amount reduced
Oxygen balance: 8 = a + 2b + 4 CO2 amount reduced
CO will be produced by the incomplete combustion
By solving balances above, finally : a = 2 , b= 1

The equation for combustion can therefore be expressed as:

C3H8 + 4 O2 + 15.04 N2 2 CO + CO2 + 4 H2O + 15.04 N2

Heating Value of a Fuel:
Heat of reaction of coal constituents are given in table below:

Table1. Heats of reaction of coal constituents

Formula Product of Heat of
and state combustion reaction
and state (kJ/kg mol)

Carbon (Coke) C (s) CO2 (g) -407,000

Carbon C (s) CO2 (g) -397,000
Carbon monoxide CO (g) CO (g) -283,000
Hydrogen H2 (g) H2O (l) -286,000
Sulpur S (s) SO2 (g) -291,000

For 1 kg of coal containing C kg carbon, the heat released by the carbon combustion ( taking
carbon to have heat of reaction of coke) at standard condition is
Heat released by carbon kJ kg �mole kJ
Ckg �407000 � = 33917C
combustion is kg �mole 12kg kg
 291
,
000
S kJ
Similarly, heat released by sulphur = =
9094
S
32 kg

The available hydrogen is that hydrogen which is available for combustion, and is the
total hydrogen less than that required to combine with the oxygen in the coal, (H-O/8).

 O  286000  O  kJ
Heat released by hydrogen combustion = H -  = 143000 H - 
 8 2  8  kg

Therefore, the total heat released by complete combustion of 1 kg coal is

 O MJ
HHV = 33.917C + 143 H -  + 9.094 S (27)
 8 kg
The equation is very close to Dulong’s formula, as given by Equation (5)
Control of Excess Air
Proper control of the proper amount of excess air maintains optimum combustion efficiency.
Excess air is indicated by CO2 and O2 in gases.
CO2 level depends on the fuel and the optimum excess air supplied (fig. 6 ).
O2 level depends much less on the type of fuel ( fig. 7). Thus, it is prefered.

Fig. 6. CO2 variation of flue Fig.7. O2 variation in flue

The excess air is than adjusted by controlling the amount air supply to show the optimum
value of CO2 and O2. The optimum value of excess air for the best combustion efficiency
is as below (fig. 8).

Fig. 8. Optimum excess air for maximum combustion efficiency

Excess air can also be determined by the following relation (Strotzki and Vapot, 1960).

O2 - 0.5CO
%ExcessAir = x100
0.264N 2 - ( O2 - 0.5CO )

where CO, O2, and N2 are percentages in volume in DFG.

An approximate formula for the excess air is

� ( CO2 )0 � O2 - 0.5CO �
�
%ExcessAir = 100 � - 1�= 100 � �
( CO
� 2 - CO ) � � 21 - O2 �

Where (CO2)0=%CO2 in the stoichiometric dry product,

CO2, CO, O2=% in the actual products.
CL2A
The ultimate analyis of coal was 85% Carbon, 4.5% Hydrogen, 4% Sulphur the remaining is
ash. 100kg of coal. On the other hand, the analysis of DFG was 14% Carbon dioxide, 4%
Oxygen and 3% Sulphur Dioxide and Nitrogen 79% by volume. Determine:
1) Combustion equation
2) Actual air supplied for the combustion
3) Theoretical air required
4) Percentage of excess air
CL2B
Explain the Mechanism of Pulverized Coal Firing System

• Overall system
• Crusher
• Pulverizer
• Firing
CL2B
Study on the history and current utilization of Anthracite, Bituminous, Lignite
and Peat

• Requirement:
5 pages
Double Column
A4 size
Font: 12point
Reference must be clearly cited
MASS BALANCE OF A STEAM GENERATOR

Figure 9 gives material balance for a boiler furnace on basis of 1 kg coal, where W A is the
amount of air supplied.
1kg coal =
C + H + O + S + N + M +A Wdfg= CO2+CO+O2+N2+SO2

WA Boiler furnace WH 2O = 9H + M + g AWA

Re fuse = A + C - Cab

Figure 9: Material balance for a boiler furnace

WA+C+H+O+S+N+M+A=Wdfg+9H+M+A+C-Cab
 O
W A = Wdfg + 8 H -  - C ab - N - S
 8
Mass of dfg produced per kg coal:
C ab (44CO2 + 28CO + 28N 2 + 32O2 )
Wdfg =
12(CO2 + CO)
C ab 11CO2 + 7CO + 8O2 + 7(100 - CO2 - CO - O2 )
=
3(CO2 + CO)
C ab (4CO2 + O2 + 700)
= (30)
3(CO2 + CO)

Volume of flue gases (wet) produced per kg coal

 Wdfg W H 2O  t g + 273 101.325 3

V fg = +  x 22.4 x x m (31)
 M dfg 18  273 pg

Where the pressure of gas pg is in kPa and Mdfg is the molecular weight of dfg. The dry
refuse analysis by mass gives AR +CR =1.00, where subscript R reperesents the refuse.
In 1 kg coal, A = WR x AR, where WR is the amount of refuse per kg coal and AR is the mass
fraction of ash in the refuse.
A
WR =
AR

A
Mass of un burnt carbon in refuse per kg coal =CW
R R=CR
AR

Carbon burnout in dry gas

A
C ab = C - C R (32)
AR
ENERGY BALANCE OF A STEAM GENERATOR
The fuel supplied to a furnace when completely burned releases its heating value. This
energy converts the feedwater pumped to the boiler into steam

Figure 10: Energy balance of a steam genarator

1.Energy loss due to dry exhaust gas 6.Energy loss due to moisture
2.Energy loss due to unburnt carbon coming with air supplied
3.Energy loss due to incomplete combustion 7.Energy loss due to ash and slag

4.Energy loss due to moisture in fuel 8.Energy loss due to convection and
radiation from the boiler surface
5.Energy loss due to hydrogen in fuel
dry exhaust gas
- kJ
Q2 = Wdfg . C Pdfg (t g - t a ),
kg
unburnt carbon

407000 kJ
Q3 = (C - C ab ) = 33917(C - C ab )
12 kg

incomplete combustion

Loss of energy per kg of C oxidized to CO ( see table 1)

283000 kJ kJ
= carbon = 2358.3 carbon
12 kg kg
 Loss of energy per kg of fuel
kJ kg _ dfg 28CO kgCO 12kg _ carbon
Q4 = 2358.3 xWdfg x x
kgcarbon kg _ fuel 44CO2 + 28CO + 32O2 + 28N 2 kg _ dfg 28kgCO
28CO kJ
= 10100Wdfg
44CO2 + 28CO + 32O2 + 28N 2 kg

moisture in fuel


Q5 = M 4.187(100 - t f ) + 2256.8 + 2.09(t g - 100)  kJ
kg
Where, tf=temperature of fuel entering the furnace

hydrogen in fuel


Q6 = 9 H 4.187(100 - t f ) + 2256.8 + 2.09(t g - 100)  kJ
kg
moisture coming with air supplied
- kJ
Q7 = g AW A x Cp (t g - t a )
kg
g A- = specific humidity of air, (kg moisture)/(kg dry air)
Cp = Specific heat of superheated water vapour
ash and slag
- kJ
Q8 =  (C - C ab ) + A Cp(t fu - t a )
kg
-
Cp =the average specific heat of ash, kJ/kg K
t fu =the temperature of the furnace, O
C

convection and radiation from the boiler surface

(t w - t a )
Q9 = (hc + hr ) A
wf
hc= convective heat transfer coefficient, W/m2
hr= radiative heat transfer coefficient, W/m2
A= total surface area exposed to the ambient air, m2
tw= temperature of the wall surface of the boiler, OC
ta= ambient temperature, OC
Energy released by complete combustion of 1 kg fuel= HHV

Energy utilized in the heating of the working fluid

Q1 = HHV -  energy _ loss = HHV - (Q2 + Q3 +..... + Q9 ) (43)

Therefore, efficiency of steam generator

energyutil ized HHV -  energy _ losses

 st . gen = = (44)
energyreleased HHV

Ws  (h2 - h1 ) + (1 - m1 )(h4 - h3 )
 st . gen =
W f xHHV